Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay
The survey aims to find the impact of wall to palisade rug in schools on the wellness of wheezing kids in the Netherlands. By concentrating on a population of diagnosed wheezing and mite allergic kids, the survey chiefly examined the concentration of Der P I – the major allergen produced by dust touchs in Europe – in both life and school environment.
. In fact, concentration of Der P I in brooding floors is much higher than that in carpeted or non-carpeted school floors, therefore reasoning that there is no evident connexion between wall to palisade rug in schools and impairment of kids ‘s asthma symptoms. Study focused on merely one allergen as stated!
Nriagu, J. , et Al. 1999. Prevalence of asthma and respiratory symptoms in South-central Durban, South Africa. European Journal of Epidemiology, 15, ( 8 ) : 747-755
The survey aims to find the prevalence of respiratory and asthma symptoms in Durban, by exhaustively questioning random portion of the population. Based on the replies given, the survey concludes that there is no evident connexion between asthma in kids and the usage of rugs. Durban is a to a great extent polluted country – people evidently consider pollution a much more important subscriber to asthma!
Dieted, R. , Hedge, A. 1996. Toxicological considerations in measuring indoor air quality and human wellness: Impact of new rug emanations. Critical reappraisals in toxicology, 26, ( 6 ) :633-707
The survey provides an overview of the surveies carried out boulder clay 1996 refering toxicological impact of new rug emanations on IAQ and human wellness, with the purpose of sum uping the scientific cognition so far. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay. Taking everything into history, the survey concludes that non merely do new rugs emit entire VOCs at really low degrees, but these emanations significantly decay and fall at hint degree within a hebdomad. Furthermore, toxicological appraisals of dominant VOCs in rug emanations indicate concentration of compounds below thresholds for toxicity. Based on the above mentioned, the survey suggests that VOC emanations from new rugs are far from presenting a wellness hazard.
ASSOCIATION BETWEEN CARTETS AND ASTHMA OR ALLERGIES
Krieger, J.W. , et Al. 2000. Asthma and the place environment of low-income urban kids: Preliminary findings from the Seattle – King County healthy places project. Journal of urban wellness, 77, ( 1 ) : 50-67
The survey describes how indoor environmental conditions are connected to asthma triggers among kids in a low-income urban country like Seattle/King County. Data was obtained from interviews with the caretakers of kids aged 4-12 old ages with relentless asthma life in really hapless families, while place reviews provided auxiliary information. Overall, it is proven that hapless life conditions and deficient financess create an indoor environment that favors substandard lodging, moistness and deficiency of hygiene. In such occasions, even rugs could go harmful dust reservoirs, since normally no peculiar attention is taken for their care – sometimes there is non even a vacuity cleaner available. As a affair of fact, 76.8 % of kids ‘s sleeping rooms had rugs, which due to hapless care, wet, deficient airing and accrued dust, contribute to the exposure to all kinds of asthma and allergies triggers. Makes sense!
Platts-Mills, T.A. , et Al. 1996. Changing constructs of allergic disease: the effort to maintain up with existent alterations in life styles. Journal of Allergy & A ; Clinical Immunology, 98, ( 6 ) : 297-306. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay.
The survey assumes that the debut of rugs as lasting fixtures may hold affected the development of allergic reactions and asthma over the last century. That is to state, it is assumed that, while till the early 1900s rugs were on a regular basis beaten and put in storage during the summer, the innovation of vacuity cleansing agent resulted in rugs being used as lasting fixtures, without though being every bit clean as earlier. The survey besides implies that since back in the 1900s rugs were unusual in lodging of low-income households, the 1s which were owned by affluent households were unbroken clean. Premises based on historical alterations in life style!
Norback, D. , et Al. 1995. Asthmatic symptoms and volatile organic compounds, methanal and C dioxide in homes. Occupational and environmental medical specialty, 52, ( 6 ) : 388-395
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The survey examines the relation between symptoms of asthma, constructing features and indoor concentration of volatile organic compounds in Uppsala. The methodological analysis concerned the random choice of both wheezing and non-asthmatic objects and the review of their houses in order to mensurate room temperature, air humidness, VOCs, respirable dust, and C dioxide concentration. In add-on, all the objects underwent a series of clinical trials. Sing rugs, the consequences of the survey indicate a strong connexion between nocturnal shortness of breath and wall to palisade rug, irrespective of the objects ‘ age, sex, or smoking wonts. Furthermore, formaldehyde concentration was found to be higher in homes with wall to palisade rug, while the effects of house dust touchs and carpeting on nocturnal thorax stringency were important even when the effects of methanal and VOCs were controlled.Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay. Finally, the survey suggests that wall to palisade rugs should be avoided, since they act as terminals for assorted types of pollutants. Presence of wall to palisade rugs merely in 18 % of the homes – how dependable is that per centum? More information about the quality of the rugs would be utile! The survey indicates a strong connexion between rugs and nocturnal shortness of breath – nevertheless the extent to which this connexion leads to severe wellness hazards is non clarified. Furthermore small information is given about the province of the houses, ie clean or muffle – since merely 16 % had seeable marks of moistness, most of them sound as if they were in a good province. Since Sweden is known to be a affluent state, it could be assumed that many rugs are of new engineering – does this play any peculiar function?
hypertext transfer protocol: //www.carpet-rug.org/news-room/press-releases/010830_myths.cfm
Myth No. 1
“ There are wellness hazards associated with rug. ”
Truth:
An extended toxicological appraisal of constituents of rug concluded that the chemicals in rug pose no wellness hazards of public concern.
Mention:
In 1994, Environ Corporation of Arlington, Virginia, prepared a survey, A Safety Assessment of Components of and Emissions from Carpets. The decision was: “ For the chemicals identified as being present in, but non emitted from rug, there is no ground to believe that they present any wellness hazard of public concern. For chemicals identified as being from rug, no malignant neoplastic disease hazard of public wellness concern is predicted for any chemical separately, or when the predicted upper bound on hazard is added for all possible carcinogens. Similarly, no non-carcinogenic effects of public wellness concern would be anticipated. ”Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay.
Myth No. 2
“ Mold and mold can turn in rug. ”
Truth:
Mold and mold exist ONLY where there is extra wet and soil coupled with hapless cleansing and care wonts. Mold growing can happen on any surfacefrom windowpanes to carpetthat is non decently maintained and when wet is utmost. Extinguishing beginnings of inordinate wet, such as H2O leaks, and commanding humidness greatly offset the possible for cast to turn.
Mention:
In a survey conducted by HOST/Racine Industries, six Florida schools were checked for indoor air jobs triggered by high humidness and decreased airing. Dust-lined, mouldy canals and plumbing leaks onto ceiling tiles allowed cast to turn and released 1000000s of spores into the air. The research supported that cast and mold are non associated with a peculiar surface, such as rug.
Myth No. 3
“ Rug is a cause of the asthma and allergy addition. ”
Truth:
Comparison informations from Sweden supports that there is no nexus between rug use and the incidence of asthma or allergic reactions. CRI is non cognizant of any published scientific research showing a nexus between rug and asthma or allergic reactions.
Mention:
A survey, based on historical figures for 10 old ages, was reported by scientists at the Swedish Institute of Fibre and Polymer Research. They found that while the usage of rug in Sweden had steadily decreased since 1975, the happenings of allergic reactions in the general population had increased. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay.
Carpet Usage & A ; Allergic Reactions in Sweden, 1975-1990
Myth No. 4
“ Rug is a sink for allergy-causing substances. ”
Truth:
This is true as stated. The critical point, nevertheless, is frequently missed. Carpet holds allergen-causing substances tightly and, as a consequence, keeps allergens from going airborne, minimising the degree of allergens in the external respiration zone. This translates to take down exposure potency. The allergens held by rugs filter-like consequence may be removed by hoovering, reviewing the filter-like belongingss of the rug to let more material to be removed from the air. Vacuuming mattresses, rug, and upholstery one time or twice a hebdomad removed allergens, including dust mite fecesa known beginning of allergen. It is of import to utilize the proper type of vacuity to minimise re-suspending allergens.
Mention:
InA Carpet and Airborne Allergens, A Literature Review, Dr. Alan Luedtke refers to the consequences of a survey aimed at finding the consequence of everyday hoovering cleansing that indicate frequent vacuity cleansing over a short clip significantly reduces house dust and touch allergen degrees in rugs.
Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) surveies indicate the effectivity of rug in cut downing airborne atoms. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay. This information indicates that dirt in rug is significantly reduced following cleansing. Visit CRIs web site to larn about the Green Label Vacuum Cleaner IAQ Testing Program that approves vacuity cleaner theoretical accounts that are most effectual in dirt remotion and dust containment, while maintaining rug looking good.
Myth No. 5
“ Rug is a beginning of indoor quality ( IAQ ) jobs. ”
Truth:
As noted antecedently, an extended toxicological appraisal of constituents of, and emanations from, rug concluded that the chemicals in rug “ present no wellness hazards of public wellness concern. ” Further, allergens in rug may be removed by hoovering. Vacuum cleaner machines bearing the CRI IAQ Green Label meet scientifically established criterions for dirt remotion and dust containment and aid keep good rug visual aspect.
Mention:
EPA/RTIA Total Building Cleaning Effectiveness StudyA provinces, “ Organized cleansing contributes to decrease of atom VOCs and biological pollutants 50 % + . ” Besides referenced is the antecedently mentioned 1994 study from the Environ Corporation, Safety AssessmentA of Components of and Emissions from Rugs.Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay.
Myth No. 6
“ Rug is more expensive and harder to keep than hard-floor surfaces. ”
Truth:
Properly maintained rug merely needs hoovering one time or twice hebdomadal and periodic extraction cleansing. The sweeping, swabbing, depriving, waxing, and buffing that difficult surface floors demand are more arduous and dearly-won.
Mention:
A Building Office Managers Association ( BOMA ) survey found hard-surface floors require two-and-a-half times more one-year cleansing than rug. Consumers may bespeak CRIs brochuresA Carpet, the Educated Choice forA Schools, Carpet Maintenance for School Facilities, andA Use Life CostA Analysis for Commercial FacilitiesA to larn about the life-cycle cost analysis and the value rug delivers through heat, comfort, safety, and acoustics in the schoolroom and at place. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay.
Myth No. 7
“ Rug is environmentally non-sustainable. ”
Truth:
CRI member companies, stand foring over 90 per centum of the industrys makers, have an first-class path record over the last twelve old ages of diminishing wastes produced and energy consumed, bettering the industrys sustainability.
Mention:
The Rug and Rug InstitutesA Sustainability Report, 2001A inside informations theA industrys environmental attempts.
Myth No. 8
“ Rug is a major emitter of volatile organic compounds ( VOCs ) . ”
Truth:
Most new interior trappingss and edifice stuffs emit VOCs for a period of clip. Emissions from new rug are among the lowest of any families indoor trappingss, and most VOCs dissipate within 24 hourseven faster with good airing.
Mention:
To farther minimise other IAQ concerns, stipulate low-emitting merchandises, including CRI Green Label rug, shock absorber, and adhesive, when choosing family merchandises and trappingss.
Myth No. 9
“ Formaldehyde is used in the production of new rug. ”
Truth:
Formaldehyde is non used in the rug fabrication procedure. It is non emitted from new rug. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay.
Mention:
An article published in 1989 in theA American Textile Chemist and ColoristsA JournalA stated that research conducted by the School of Textile Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, under Dr. Wayne Tincher and other research workers dispelled this widely-held myth. In add-on, the CRI Indoor Air Quality Testing Programs specifically monitor for formaldehyde emanation from new rug, rug shock absorber, and installing adhesives as portion of the industrys confidence to the populace of the absence of this chemical in these merchandises.
Several earlier studies have shown the presence of more dust and allergens in carpets compared with non-carpeted floors. At the same time, adverse effects of carpeted floors on perceived indoor air quality as well as worsening of symptoms in individuals with asthma and allergies were reported. Avoiding extensive carpet use in offices, schools, kindergartens and bedrooms has therefore been recommended by several health authorities. More recently, carpet producers have argued that former assessments were obsolete and that modern rugs are unproblematic, even for those with asthma and allergies. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay. To investigate whether the recommendation to be cautious with the use of carpets is still valid, or whether there are new data supporting that carpet flooring do not present a problem for indoor air quality and health, we have reviewed the literature on this matter. We have not found updated peer reviewed evidence that carpeted floor is unproblematic for the indoor environment. On the contrary, also more recent data support that carpets may act as a repository for pollutants which may become resuspended upon activity in the carpeted area. Also, the use of carpets is still linked to perception of reduced indoor air quality as well as adverse health effects as previously reported. To our knowledge, there are no publications that report on deposition of pollutants and adverse health outcomes associated with modern rugs. However, due to the three-dimensional structure of carpets, any carpet will to some extent act like a sink. Thus, continued caution should still be exercised when considering the use of wall-to-wall carpeted floors in schools, kindergartens and offices, as well as in children’s bedrooms unless special needs indicate that carpets are preferable. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay.
1. Introduction
Carpet floors in public buildings are used to reduce noise, especially in open plan offices and schools, but also for aesthetic reasons. During the 80s and 90s the use of such flooring in offices, schools, kindergartens and homes was shown to have negative effects on perceived indoor air quality. Carpets were also associated with adverse effects in users, particularly among those with asthma and allergy problems [1,2,3,4]. Later studies have supported an association between the use of carpets and adverse health outcomes. However, as far as we are aware of, the issue of carpets and health has not been reviewed before.
The carpet and rug producers have regularly argued that previous knowledge and risk assessments are obsolete and that modern rugs no longer represent a problem for indoor air quality. Rather, they now claim to represent a good option, even for people with asthma and allergies. From our own experience in Norway, we see that carpets are increasingly placed in new office buildings where the use of open plan offices are rising. Moreover, in our experience, the advice given earlier by health authorities to reduce the use of carpets in such premises is often ignored. Most likely, this is a trend that is common in many countries due to a potential cost reducing effect of open plan offices. That carpets are a common flooring material in large markets is reflected in the numbers reported on the home page of the Carpet and Rug Institute, which claims that carpets accounts for 51% of the total U.S. flooring market. Whether this number is on the rise or declining is not known to us. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay.
In a health risk assessment of carpeted floor, two factors are of interest. One is that carpets may act as a repository for indoor air pollutants such as dirt, dust particles, allergens and other biological contamination that can build up in the carpets. Such pollutants may be processed, released and provide new exposure at a later time point. It should be emphasized that neither the presence of such pollutants in the carpet nor their resuspension is necessarily linked to health consequences unless the pollutants are hazardous and the exposure level is high enough to cause adverse effects.
The second is that carpets may emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that can cause smell and irritation of mucous membranes, especially in sensitive individuals. However, tests of new carpets indicate that emissions have been reduced and have a shorter duration. Pollution over a longer period depends partly on the deposition of dirt, care- and cleaning agents and on cleaning procedures [5]. To elucidate whether the recommendation to be cautious with the use of carpets is still valid, we reviewed the literature on the current knowledge on contaminants from carpets and adverse health outcomes associated with carpeted floors in non-industrial indoor environments. The review included literature from the late 80’s until today.Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay. Much of the older literature is still an important part of current knowledge. More recent publications support the old data in that carpets may act as a repository for pollutants that may become airborne during normal indoor activity and that adverse health outcomes could be associated with carpets.
2. Materials and Methods
A literature search in PubMed covering the years from 1980 to 2017 was performed. The search words in PubMed were:
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Allergen levels, carpets, smooth floors: nine publications.
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Carpets, adverse health effects: 149 publications.
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Asthma, allergy, indoor environment, carpets: 61 publications.
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Asthma and allergy associated with carpets: 59 publications.
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Carpets, respiratory disease: 215 publications.
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Flooring type, health impact: eight publications.
A review of the existing scientific literature (both epidemiological and experimental studies) including allergen levels/dust in carpets and on hard floors as well as possible adverse health effects associated with flooring type (carpets or other types) was performed. The first selection of possibly relevant publications was based on title and/or abstract. The different groups of search words retrieved mainly the same relevant publications. In addition we did a manual search on Google Scholar as well as on internet using the same search word used in PubMed. In total, 49 scientific publications were included. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay. The studies consisted of measurements of pollutants (dust, allergens) in carpets compared with hard floors (for an overview, see Table 1) and cross-sectional, longitudinal and intervention studies (seven, four and four studies respectively) related to health impact. In addition there were one case control study, one in vitro experimental study and two studies looking at inflammatory markers in blood and genetic analysis respectively (see Table 2 for an overview of publications related to carpets and adverse health outcomes). As presented in this review, there are relatively few publications that have investigated the impact of carpeted floors on adverse health effects. Moreover, the majority of those that has investigated carpets and health have limited strength due to study size and design, with lack of objective health assessments.
Table 1
Carpets as an exposure source.
| Authors [Reference] | Type of Study | Results |
|---|---|---|
| Dybendal et al. [6] | Comparison of dust, proteins and allergens from carpeted and smooth floors in homes and schools in Norway. | Carpeted floors in schools and homes contained significantly more dust, proteins, and allergens than smooth floors. |
| Van Strien et al. [7] | Measurements of mite allergen concentrations in floor- and mattress dust in dwellings. | Mite allergen concentrations in dust from carpeted floors were 6–14 times higher than in dust from smooth floors. |
| Zock et al. [8] | Comparison of house dust mite allergen levels in dust from schools with smooth and carpeted classroom floors. | More house dust mite allergen in dust from carpeted classroom floors than from smooth classroom floors, but the levels were much lower than in dust from floors in homes. |
| Tranter [9] | Review article. | Higher concentrations of allergens consistently found in carpets compared with smooth floors. Carpet vacuuming seems to remove larger particles but not the allergen-associated smaller particles whereas smooth floor cleaning appears more efficient regarding removal of these smaller particles. |
| Causer et al. [10] | Effect of carpet construction on content and vertical distribution of mite allergen. | Significantly higher concentrations of allergens from house dust mites have been reported in rooms with carpet floors no matter how the carpets were made compared to hard/smooth floors. |
| Arbes et al. [11] | Levels of seven indoor allergens in 89 day-care facilities in two North Carolina counties. Dust samples were collected from carpeted and non-carpeted areas of one room each place. | Levels of several antigens were statistically higher on carpet than on hard surfaced flooring. For dog and cat allergens, the differences were clinically significant, with mean levels on hard floors being well below proposed thresholds for allergic sensitization. |
| Cho et al. [12] | The effect of home characteristics on dust antigen concentrations in homes. | Carpeted floor held larger amount of antigens than non-carpeted floor. |
| Matheson et al. [13] | Residential characteristics predict changes in Der p 1, Fel d 1 and ergosterol but not fungi over time. | Installation of carpets caused an increased exposure to allergens from house dust mites. Removal of carpets significantly reduced the levels of both mite allergens and ergosterol, a cell wall component of molds. |
| Dahl et al. [5] | Textile floor coverings as part of indoor environment. | Significantly larger amount of dust and viable microorganisms in carpet floors compared to hard floors did not result in observed differences in dust fall rates on inventory surfaces or particle content in room air. |
| Salo et al. [14] | Investigation of indoor allergens in school and day care environments. | Carpeted floors, upholstered furniture and clothes were important reservoirs and sources of allergens, especially from dust mites and pets. |
| Ashley et al. [15] | Evaluation of a standardized micro-vacuum sampling method for collection of surface dust. | When comparing the recovery fraction obtained by vacuuming of standardized dust applied to various surfaces, significantly lower amounts were obtained from rough and porous surfaces compared with smooth and hard surfaces and with the lowest recovery from carpets. |
| Stranger et al. [16] | Comparative study of indoor air quality in Belgian schools. | The ratio between indoor air and outdoor air amounts of particulate matter (<2.5 mm) was significantly higher for classrooms with carpeted floors compared with classroom without carpet floor. This indicated that carpets may increase the amount of resuspended dust. |
| Tian et al. [17] | A comparative study of walking-induced dust resuspension using a consistent test mechanism. | For particle size 3.0–10.0 µm, carpets exhibited higher resuspension fractions compared with hard floorings. The results support that people sensitive to allergens could select hard floorings to reduce exposure and adverse health outcomes. |
| Bramwell et al. [18] | An evaluation of the impact of flooring types on exposures to fine and coarse particles. | Flooring type can significantly impact incremental time-averaged daily exposures to coarse and fine particles and that high-density cut pile carpeting resulted in the highest exposures. |
| Paton et al. [19] | Study of re-aerosolization of spores from flooring surfaces. | Walking on a carpet generated significantly more re-aerosolization of spores than walking on PVC. Heavy contra light walking as well as height above the flooring material where sampling was done all had an impact on the amount of re-aerosolization levels. |
| Siming et al. [20] | Chamber study. | Higher resuspension rates of particles from carpets compared to wood PVC and vinyl materials. |
| Salimifard et al. [21] | Chamber study. | Carpet surfaces yields higher resuspension rate than linoleum surface at the same humidity level. |
| Scheepers et al. [22] | The effect on indoor air quality of new carpet combined with air filtration investigated in classrooms. | The combination resulted in reduced levels of particles and VOC in air compared with hard floors alone. No assessment was done on carpets alone. |
Table 2
Associations between carpet use and adverse health outcomes.
| Authors [Reference] | Type of Study | Results |
|---|---|---|
| Norbäck et al. [1]. | Longitudinal. Questionnaire. (Initial cross-sectional study with self-reporting of symptoms followed by later questionnaire). Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay. | Personnel in schools with wall-to-wall carpet reported increased prevalence of eye and airway symptoms, face rashes, headache and abnormal tiredness compared with those in schools with hard floors. Removal of carpets caused several symptoms to decrease. Frequency of airway symptoms remained increased in the carpet group. |
| Norbäck et al. [2] | Longitudinal study. A four year study among personnel in six primary schools. |
Chronic SBS was related to VOC, previous wall to wall carpeting in the schools, hyperreactivity, and psychosocial factors. |
| Skov et al. [3] | Cross sectional (self-reported). 2369 office workers in 14 buildings, where indoor climate measurements were made, filled out a questionnaire. |
Floor covering, the shelf factor and the fleece factor were among several factors associated with the prevalence of symptoms (work-related mucosal irritation and work related general symptoms). |
| Wargocki et al. [23] | Reversible intervention study. Experimental study with cross-over design. Persons unaware of intervention were exposed once with the pollution source present and once without the pollution source. Self-reporting of symptoms and evaluation of task performance. |
Pollution source was a 20 years old carpet. Removal of pollution source resulted in increased satisfaction with perceived indoor air, reduced prevalence of headaches and significantly faster typing of text. Reducing the pollution load was effective in improving comfort, health and productivity. |
| Wargocki et al. [24] | Reversible intervention study. Experimental study with a cross-over design. Persons unaware of the intervention. Self-reporting of symptoms and evaluation of task performance. |
Carpets used as pollution source. Overall productivity increased with increased ventilation. Results show that maintaining good indoor air quality by controlling indoor pollution sources and ensuring adequate ventilation important for comfort, health and productivity. |
| Wargocki et al. [25] | Reversible intervention study. Subjective assessments of perceived air quality, intensity of sick building syndrome symptoms and performance of office work. |
Removing the pollution source improved the perceived air quality, decreased the perceived dryness of air and the severity of headaches, and increased typing performance. |
| Bluyssen et al. [26] | Self-reported (Cross sectional study). | An increase in adverse health effects was observed in offices where carpet was the main type of floor covering. |
| Jaakkola et al. [27] | Cross sectional. (Population-based incident case-control study) |
The risk of asthma was related to the presence of plastic wall materials and wall-to-wall carpet at work, the latter in particular in the presence of mold problems (adjusted OR = 4.64, 95% CI: 1.11, 19.4). |
| Chen et al. [28] | A 1:2 matched case-control study. Self-reported. | Cockroaches, carpet, pets, and in-utero exposures to ETS affected the timing of early-onset asthma. |
| Ekici et al. [29] | Retrospectiv cross sectional. Parents and grandparents of schoolchildren were asked to answer questionnaires about respiratory system-related symptoms and characteristics in the children. |
Childhood respiratory infections associated with increased risk of asthma, chronic bronchitis and chronic cough. Several factors including wall-to-wall carpets were associated with increased risk of frequent childhood respiratory infections. |
| Ferry et al. [30] | Longitudinal. Exposures to 17 environmental factors before the age of two were reported retrospectively. |
Individuals with early childhood asthma more likely to have lived in a house with carpet and more likely to report suffering a serious chest illness before the age of two compared to those with later asthma onset. Carpet exposure and suffering a serious chest illness concurrently before age two increased the individual risk even more. |
| Vicendese et al. [31] | Hospital-based case-control study. | Carpeted floors in the bedroom associated with increase in asthma readmissions (OR = 4.07, 95% CI 1.03–16.06). |
| Herr et al. [32] | Longitudinal (Birth cohort). Data on wheezing disorders, medical visits and medications, as well as biological markers of atopy, were collected at 18 months. |
Prevalence of wheeze was influenced by several factors where carpet covered floor in the child’s bedroom was one. |
| Liu et al. [33] | Cross-sectional study. | Bedroom carpets were one of several indoor factors associated with higher prevalence of respiratory symptoms. |
| Tsai et al. [34] | Genetic analysis and questionnaire about children’s exposure and disease status. | Genetic variation in the IL-13 gene affects health outcomes in the airways. This study indicated that variations in the IL-13 gene could be linked to asthma in children and that asthma disease was related to carpet use. |
| Zock et al. [35] | Housing data obtained by an interviewer-led questionnaire. Associations between housing data and asthma (based on symptoms the last year) as well as bronchial responsiveness were evaluated. | Carpets and rugs in the bedroom were related to less bronchial responsiveness and fewer asthma symptoms. |
| Behrens et al. [36] | Data from two cross sectional surveys 5 years apart. | Carpets were inversely associated with adverse respiratory conditions but not when the analysis was restricted to individuals with no report on carpet avoidance due to a history of atopic disease. |
| Skorge et al. [37] | Self-reported (Cross sectional study). | Wall to wall carpets in the bedroom was negatively associated with cough with phlegm, chronic cough, and attacks of dyspnoea. |
| Mommers et al. [38] | Nested case-control study. Part of a longitudinal study in children on respiratory health and indoor environment. | A negative association between asthma symptoms and wall-to-wall carpets was observed |
| Al-Zahrani et al. [39] | Cross sectional study | Carpets in the bedroom were among several factors that did not appear related to the extent of asthma control. |
| Voute et al. [40] | Longitudinal. Participating children had peak-flow measurements three times a day for a 1-month period. Concurrently, the parents recorded respiratory symptoms and medication use daily.Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay. |
Peak-flow variability in asthmatic children not related to wall-to-wall carpeting on classroom floors. |
| Jaakkola et al. [41] | Cross sectional. | Risk of current asthma, wheezing, and allergy in Russian children were related to recent renovation and the installation of materials with potential chemical emissions. This included new linoleum flooring and synthetic carpeting, particleboard which were determinants of one or several of the adverse health outcomes. |
| Herberth et al. [42] | Blood sampling, inflammatory markers. Within a birth cohort study, blood samples of 6 year old children were analysed for concentration of inflammatory markers. |
Increased levels of inflammatory markers were related to renovation activities, in particular, new floor covering. Among floor covering materials only wall-to-wall carpets were associated with elevated IL-8 and Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 (MCP-1) levels. |
| Ebbehøj et al. [43] | Intervention, cohort. | Workers developed skin and/or airway problems after renewal of offices (new furniture and carpets). Removal of carpets significantly improved symptoms. Workers were examined in 2009 and re-examined in 2013. Chemicals from glued carpets suspected as trigger. |
| Allermann et al. [44] | In vitro study. The inflammatory potency of floor dust was measured as interleukin-8 secretion from the lung epithelial cell line A549 after exposure to dust. |
Carpet flooring may act as a “sink” for microorganisms resulting in a higher inflammatory potency of floor dust |
The publications that was retrieved by our search terms but excluded from the review where typically dealing with industrial indoor environments, occupational exposure (such as exposure of textile workers) or did not present relevant data on carpets and health.
3. Results
3.1. The Carpet as a Possible Source of Exposure
A number of studies have shown significantly higher levels of dust as well as allergens from fungi, dog, cat and house dust mite in carpets compared to smooth/hard floors [6,7,8,9,10,11,12]. Accordingly, Matheson et al. [13] found that installing carpets caused an increased exposure to allergens from house dust mites. Removing the carpets significantly reduced the levels of both mite allergens and ergosterol, a component of the cell wall of molds. Similar results were reported in a study comparing environmental characteristics of carpets and hard floors, where significantly larger amount of dust deposits and higher percentage of viable microorganisms were found in the carpet floor compared to the hard floors [5].
In a later review evaluating contributing factors to indoor allergen exposures in schools and kindergartens and the impact on asthma and allergy disease, carpeted floors, upholstered furniture and clothes were important reservoirs and sources of allergens, especially from dust mites and pets [14]. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay. When comparing the recovery fraction obtained by vacuuming of standardized dust applied to various surfaces, significantly lower amounts were obtained from rough and porous surfaces compared with smooth and hard surfaces and with the lowest recovery from carpets [15]. This indicated that dust could be collecting in the carpet, but whether this is more easily suspended later was unclear.
A study in Belgian schools found that the ratio between the amounts of particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 µm (PM2.5) in indoor and outdoor air was significantly higher for classrooms with carpeted floors compared with classroom without carpet floor. This indicated that carpets may increase the amount of resuspended (swirled) dust [16]. Tian and colleagues [17] examined how simulated walk on the floor lead to resuspension of dust and how this is affected by factors such as type of floor. For particles in the size fraction from 0.4 to 3.0 µm the differences in amounts stirred up were not significantly different between carpeted and hardwood floors. For particles in size fraction between 3.0 to 10.0 µm, more particles were resuspended from carpeted floors compared to hard floors. This indicates (depending on particle size) that the higher dust amounts reported for the carpeted floors are likely to come from increases in the coarse fraction.
Similar results were shown in chamber studies by Bramwell and coworkers [18] who found that flooring type can significantly impact incremental time-averaged daily exposures to coarse and fine particles and that high-density cut pile carpeting resulted in the highest exposures. Overall, the authors found that resuspension from walking within the residential micro-environment contributed between 6–72% of time-averaged daily exposures to PM10. Similar results were obtained by Patton and coworkers regarding pathogenic microorganisms [19]. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay. By using an environmental chamber, they quantified re-aerosolization caused by walking on either industrial carpet or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) floor coverings contaminated with bacterial spores. The results showed that walking on a carpet generated significantly more re-aerosolization of spores than walking on PVC. Heavy contra light activity as well as the height above the floor where the sampling was done had an impact on the amount of re-aerosolization levels [19].
Higher resuspension rates of particles from carpets compared to hard floor materials were also found in the chamber study by Siming and Wan [20]. For both carpet and wood polyvinyl chloride (PVC), the resuspension rate was higher for PM10 than for PM2.5. Independent of surface material type, increased humidity resulted in decreased resuspension rates.
In agreement with these findings are the results from a more recent chamber study [21] where the impact of humidity and air swirl on resuspension of various biological particles from different surface materials were investigated. They found that particle resuspension rate was dependent on particle size, the hydrophilic properties of the particles and relative humidity (RH). Thus, resuspension of hydrophilic particles (house dust mites) but not hydrophobic particles decreased when RH was increased and more so from linoleum compared to carpets. However, the resuspension of the hydrophilic particles was higher from carpets than linoleum at all three levels of investigated RH (42%, 63% and 82%).
In contrast, there are also studies indicating that deposited dust in carpets not easily become airborne. In the study by Dahl et al. [5], the significantly larger amount of dust deposits and higher percentage of viable microorganisms found in the carpet floor as compared to the hard floors did not result in observed differences in dust fall rates on inventory surfaces or particle content in room air. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay.
Another study, investigated the dust reducing effect of new carpets and air purification combined in classrooms. The combination resulted in lower PM10, PM2.5 and VOC levels in air than for hard floors alone [22]. However, since this study examined only the combination of carpet and air purifiers, the result cannot be used to evaluate the contribution of carpets only.
Carpet suppliers have claimed that carpets constructed with straight fibers, i.e., they do not form the shift or loop of more traditional textile carpets, gathers less dirt and is easier to keep clean. However, significantly higher concentrations of allergens from house dust mites have been reported in rooms with carpet floors no matter how the carpets were made (loops or straight/angled fibers), compared to hard/smooth floors [10]. It also appears that the amounts of allergens on carpet floors were highest in the deepest layers of the carpets and that the rug structure had little impact on how much allergen that could be detected [10].
Overall, the available literature indicates that carpet flooring acts as a reservoir for accumulation of dust/indoor contaminants and microbiological material. It also appears that carpeted floors also contribute to increased amounts of suspended dust and microorganisms in indoor air but this may depend on relative humidity, particle size and hydrophilic properties of the particles. Further studies are required to conclude on this matter. However, we find no clear evidence in peer-reviewed journals that carpet flooring in general has dust-reducing capacity. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay.
3.2. Carpets and Adverse Health Outcomes
Over the years, several studies have investigated the impact of indoor environmental factors on health. Different adverse health outcomes were found to be associated with exposure to carpets.
Early longitudinal studies in the 80s and 90s found that staff in schools with carpet floors reported more eye irritation, swollen eyelids, and nasal and respiratory irritation (dry/sore throat, irritation cough), facial rash, headache, abnormal fatigue and feeling of being cold [1,2]. The proportion of people who reported on static electricity was also higher for carpeted floors. Removal of the carpets reduced the symptoms of eye and nose irritation, headaches and fatigue, to a level corresponding to carpet-free premises. The studies found no relationship between carpet floors and coryza/rhinitis, nasal congestion, nausea, itching (face/hands) rash on the hands or eczema. Neither were all symptoms (throat irritation, coughing and feeling of being cold) relieved upon intervention. Since the carpets were 8–10 years old and no chemical cleaning agents had been used, the authors considered it unlikely that VOCs from carpets or cleaning products were the reason for the experienced health problems. Rather, the study indicates the importance of dust and allergens. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay.
Another “early” study finding an association between carpets and adverse health effects was the cross sectional “Danish Town Hall Study” which investigated the impact of various indoor air parameters on the incidence of mucosal irritation as well as more general symptoms such as fatigue and headaches among employees [3]. Quantities of floor dust and type of flooring were two of several parameters associated with the occurrence of symptoms. A statistically significant association was found between mucosal irritation (irritation/dryness of the eye nose and throat) and the use of carpets with an odds ratio (OR) > 1.5 for felt carpets (more than 1.5 times increased frequency of the disease outcome) and OR > 2.0 for loop-woven rugs. Later, two studies from Sweden and Denmark using climate chambers and with the same study protocol, observed positive effects on symptoms such as mucosal irritation, irritation of eyes, dry skin, perceived indoor air quality and the quality and speed of execution of tasks after removal of an old carpet floor [23,24,25]. Since these studies were performed in climate chambers in which possible confounding causes for this type of symptoms were controllable, the results support previous epidemiological findings describing associations between carpets and irritative symptoms, mild cognitive effects and perceived air quality.
In the more recent European OFFICAIR study, a cross-sectional study among 7441 office employees in 167 “modern” European office buildings (new or retrofitted, preferably >10 years old, surveyed between 2011 and 2012), building associated symptoms were evaluated by a so-called Building Symptom Index (BSI) which is based on five symptoms: dry eyes, nasal congestion, dry/irritated throat, headache and lethargy (fatigue) [26]. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay. A significant increase in BSI was observed in buildings where carpeting was the most commonly used flooring material in the offices. Considering that the majority of carpeted floors in these buildings likely were installed after 2001–2002, this suggest that even more recent carpet materials could represent an indoor air problem.
With respect to more serious adverse health outcomes, a case-control study by Jaakkola and coworkers [27] found indications of an increased risk of asthma among adults associated with wall-to-wall carpets in the workplace, but the effect was not statistically significant. Carpet floors in the homes were not associated with asthma. Nor were molds significantly associated with asthma. But the combination of carpeted floors and the presence of mold in the workplace gave a significantly increased risk of asthma (OR 4.64). An increase in risk for asthma by combination of carpeted floors and mold in the home was also observed, but this was not statistically significant [27].
An association between asthma and carpets was also found in a case-control study among 579 children (12–14 years; 193 with asthma and 386 healthy controls) in Taiwan [28]. The authors observed that carpets placed before the child was 5 years were associated with an increased risk of childhood asthma, and in particular the risk of early asthma development. Carpets in other bedrooms were not significantly associated with childhood asthma. Also the result of Ekici and coworkers [29] emphasize the importance of children’s early exposures to environmental factors including carpets for disease outcome. They found that the presence wall to wall carpets in the home during childhood were one of several factors that contributed to frequent respiratory infections in childhood as well as asthma at adult age. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay.
An association between carpets and early onset asthma was also observed in the study by Ferry and coworkers [30] where they looked to identify environmental exposures associated with early onset of asthma and potential hereditary impact. More than 1000 individuals with physician diagnosed asthma and disease onset by two years or older were studied. The study included information about the children’s early exposure to 17 environmental factors. The presence of singly or combinations of these early exposures were tested for association with variation in the age at onset asthma. For exposures that could be linked to the age at onset, the study tested whether the effect could be modified by genetic variants where an association with allergic disease was known. Carpeted home was among five environmental exposures that could be linked to variation in age at asthma onset. The other exposures included serious respiratory illness and direct exposure to the father’s smoking.
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For individuals with early-onset asthma (between two and six years) there was an increased likelihood that they had lived in a house with carpets (OR 1.4) and that they reported a serious respiratory illness before the age of two compared with individuals with later asthma onset (OR 2.1). The risk of an early asthma onset was further increased if carpet exposure and severe respiratory disease both occurred before two years of age (OR 3.2). No significant interactions between gene variants and environmental exposure at the age of asthma onset were observed. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay.The authors state that these findings indicate that age of asthma onset in individuals at high risk of developing the disease may be delayed by avoiding carpet exposure and preventing severe respiratory disease during the first two years of life.
Also an Australian case-control study found that carpets in the child’s bedroom gave significantly higher risk of re-hospitalization due to asthma attacks (OR 4.07) compared with the overall incidence of carpeting in the home, which showed no significant risk [31]. In a French birth cohort of 1879 children (less than 18 months), both mild and severe wheezing was associated with carpet floor (OR 1.39) [32]. A large cross-sectional study among 23,326 Chinese children also reported that carpeted floors in the bedroom were significantly associated with increased risk of (self-reported) asthma (OR 1.94), wheezing (OR 1.47) and chronic cough (OR 1.40) [33].
Taken together, the available data suggest that indoor air quality and the presence of carpets especially in the child’s bedroom is important for preventing the development or exacerbation of childhood asthma as well as asthma at adult age.
Interleukin (IL)-13 is an inflammatory cytokine involved in allergic responses. Genetic variation (genetic polymorphism) in the IL-13 gene has been shown to affect health outcomes in the airways. A recent study looked at the impact of variations in IL-13 gene has on asthma phenotypes (variants of asthma disease with different characteristics) in a group of 3577 Taiwanese children [34]. Information about children’s exposure and disease status was obtained through a questionnaire completed by the children’s parents. For children with a particular variant (haplotype) of IL-13 gene, there was an increased risk of wheezing (OR 1.5). The risk of wheezing and asthma (after five years) increased significantly if children with this gene variant lived in a carpeted home (OR respectively 2.5 and 4.7). This indicates that variations in the IL-13 gene could be linked to asthma disease in children and that asthma disease was related to carpet use. These results are interesting, but must be confirmed in other similar studies. Carpets And Health Issues Environmental Sciences Essay.