A Criticism on the Genetics of Psychopathy Essay

The 17th Century was still a time where the feudal class system was in power, especially in England. There still existed a rigid hereditary monarchy and aristocracy and the unquestioned power of the Church. However, the 17th Century also saw great changes in science as well as philosophy. Many ideas were brought up about the human mind and body – everyone sought a connection between the two aspects of human nature. John Locke an English philosopher was the first to talk about the notion of the ‘blank slate’ or tabular Rasa in Latin. Locke expresses the mind as a sheet of White paper’ to be filled up with the influences of experience’.
Despite Locker’s work, throughout the 17th to the 19th Century there existed a relatively fixed notion that human nature was dominant. That is, experience or one’s surroundings simply had nothing to do with it. The questionable pseudo sciences of phrenology and eugenics were parroted around and racial prejudice took a centre stage in many countries.A Criticism on the Genetics of Psychopathy Essay.  Significantly, the publication of Darning’s theory of evolution led some to believe that non-white races were the White Man’s Burden’ and thus placed a scientific badge to Justify imperialism and racial superiority.
The pseudo-science of eugenics coined by Darning’s own cousin, Francis Gallon advocated ‘selective breeding. This developed over a few decades into mass involuntary sterilizations of whole ethnic groups over a series of appalling world events that would permanently change intellectual thinking. World events such as the Holocaust – the murder of Jewish populations, Gypsies and homosexuals numbering in the millions; and persecution and segregation of African-Americans in American states solidified the doctrine of the blank slate as the modern perspective on theories of the mind (Pinker, 2004, p. 16).
In his book ‘The Blank Slate’, Steven Pinker follows the events in history which led to such differences in intellectual thinking then and today. This shift in thinking rejected the idea of human nature and racial superiority and saw the takeover’ of the doctrine of the Blank Slate; the belief that everyone despite ethnicity, gender or social background was born equal and shaped by their experiences. This revolution in intellectual thinking saw many countries begin to tackle internal problems to benefit the less fortunate groups. More attention was delegated to child development and social problems.
What is a Psychopath? A psychopath is an individual who is devoid of any empathy and moral compass. His/ her behavior will continually challenge the accepted behavior in society and the law. The psychopath’s inability to feel fear, guilt or empathy inhibits the individual to comprehend ethics and morality. As a result, the psychopath, without limitations and moral decency becomes a self-serving criminal. Psychopaths are known social predators and are adept at hiding what they are; blending seamlessly into communities. A Criticism on the Genetics of Psychopathy Essay. With no moral compass, they can lie, steal and kill without any remorse (Penn, 2013, p. 9). The Debate I will add a sense of structure to this debate by defining the opposing views. The many views that constitute this debate actually fall into a spectrum of opinions. There are the two extremist views situated at opposite ends of the spectrum and some that fall in between. Atone end is the view of ‘Biological Determinism’ and at the other is the ‘Doctrine of the Blank Slate’. Respectively, the term of ‘Naturists’ and ‘Nurtures’ are used to refer to individuals who take up either side of the debate. According to Jesse J. Print in ‘Beyond Human Nature’ and Steven Pinker in ‘The Blank
Slate’ the debate can be structured in this manner: The current situation of the debate remains at a position in which both sides have agreed that an individual’s traits and behaviors is an interaction between both genetic and environmental factors. The ideas promoted by the extreme ends of the spectrum have been abandoned and Nurtures now agree that a trait and/or behavior is determined by some (albeit little) genetic influence. It is evident that now the debate rests on the degree to which human nature or genes have a hold on who we become.
Biological Determinism believes that an individual’s traits and behavior is entirely encoded in heir genetic makeup. The Doctrine of the Blank Slate believes that an individual’s traits and behavior is entirely shaped by one’s surroundings. Thoroughgoing Nurturing Nurtures believe genetics plays a limited role in an individual’s development. We are almost entirely shaped by our experiences. It is not to be denied that we are born with a few innate ideas and our genes have some control over our lives but ultimately it is environmental influences that define us.
Main areas of environmental influences (Pinker, 2002, p. 56): Prenatal Environment (in utter) Education Domestic Life Peer Influence Culture Thoroughgoing Naturism This perspective follows the school of thought that an individual’s mind is born with innate ideas and moral compasses. Their traits and behavior is encoded in their genetic makeup and define who they are. Environmental influence can have some affect but these effects will be within the limitations set by a person’s genes.

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Epigenetic This is a relatively new branch of science that received little interest despite its discovery in the asses (most likely due to the excitement surrounding the human genome). The science of epigenetic challenges a whole host of ingrained notions about human DNA. It was originally believed that our lifestyles and choices would only affect our personal health in some way or the other. So when it was time to raise our kids, they would not and could not be affected; their genetic slate would be wiped clean’ (Cloud, 2010). A Criticism on the Genetics of Psychopathy Essay.
However, recent studies have shown substantial evidence that epigenetic is a force to contend with. Lifestyle choices such as smoking and overeating can leave a mark on the pigeon. If this is so, think of the potential lifestyle choices and powerful environmental conditions such as famine may have on the type of person our child grows up to be I. . Their personality, traits and behavior. This is highly relevant to the Nature-Nurture debate as it presents a fresh perception on the rather stagnant debate. What can epigenetic mean for the Naturists and Nurtures?
Well, it certainly threatens the nature debate as its implications means that our DNA can be changed by our environment. More importantly, what can epigenetic mean for psychopath? These questions will be answered further on. How can Genes and our Surroundings affect us? Consider the Nature-Nurture debate in a wider perspective: where it can affect every single one of us. It can be argued that a person’s destiny or self-identity is made up of their traits and behavior. We are who we are as a direct result of our personality and our actions.
Where we end up in life and the person we become is essentially determined by our traits and our behavior. There are a number of physical characteristics that are controlled by a small group of genes. These include sensory abilities such as color vision and blood group. These have less of an impact on our traits and behavior. For example, humans are able to see color due to the photosensitive cells in the retina called ‘cones’. There are 3 kinds of cones and each sensitive to short, medium and long lightfaces.
Light reflects off objects in different lengths of lightfaces and the color you see depends on the proportion of each length of lightface (Print, 2013, p. 23). There is a distinct biological link between color vision and genes that allow photosensitive cells to be produced. On the other hand, as we move into more complex psychological traits, we find that the link between genes and behavior becomes distorted. The reason for this is due to the fact that many psychological traits involving the human mind, is often controlled by ore than one gene. It is multimedia.
There can even be non-genetic factors at play I. E. Environmental factors affecting a psychological trait. The question of the moment regarding Nature and Nurture, is how much are genes contributing? The Nature- Nurture debate and Psychopath When we focus in onto the situation of psychopaths and their position in the Nature- Nurture debate, we see a whole lot of elements that we do not understand yet. I aim to shed some light and understanding on the debate and especially on psychopath and how they are linked to this debate. One of the critical questions in psychopath s What makes a psychopath?
Is it a matter of genetics that determines if a child will grow up to be psychopathic? Or is it an interaction of the environment that shapes a psychopath? In psychopathic individuals it forms a major problem when it comes to dealing with them because we do not understand them. Therefore, it becomes even harder to distinguish their position in society. Are they within medical help? In which case, as it is in many parts of the world, the psychopath is treated as an individual requiring medical treatment. Are they able to be re-introduced back into society and not pose a threat?
And if they are not, what is to become of the psychopath then? Ultimately, in most instances it has been shown that psychopaths are beyond medical help. A Criticism on the Genetics of Psychopathy Essay. Many clinically diagnosed psychopaths have shown almost no improvement after long periods of medical and psychiatric treatment. The only to do is diagnosis: the devised method for diagnosing psychopath is through observation of an individual’s behaviors. Robert Hare (2008, p. 23) developed the most commonly used guidelines for doing the Job called the ‘Psychopath Checklist-Revised’ or the PC-R. The following twenty traits are used: 1 .
Glibness and superficial charm 2. Grandiose self-worth 3. Pathological lying 4. Cunning/manipulative 5. Lack of remorse or guilt 6. Shallow affect / emotional poverty 7. Callous/lack of empathy 8. Fails to accept responsibility for own actions 9. Needs stimulation/prone to boredom Parasitic lifestyle 10. Poor behavioral controls 11. No realistic long-term goals 12. Impulsiveness 13. Irresponsible 14. Juvenile delinquency (between ages of 13-18) 15. Early behavior problems (before age 13) 16. 17. Revocation of Conditional Release (e. G. Violating probation) 18.
Promiscuity Many short-term marital relationships 19. Criminal versatility (variety of criminal offenses) 0. The ‘Psychopath Checklist-Revised’ shows the 20 most common traits compiled by Robert Hare over many years of observing known psychopaths in America’s prisons. The Nurture Debate The main areas of environmental influences can affect us in different ways. Additional elaboration has been given to each of these aspects explaining Just how they can affect our traits and behaviors. Prenatal Environment is sometimes termed ‘in utter’ which refers to the fetal surroundings inside the womb.
There has been substantial evidence demonstrating the effects of malnutrition prenatal as well as postnatal. These are long term consequences and are caused by inadequate caloric/ vitamin intake during fetal development. The effect of excessive fat, carbohydrate or protein intake can also have permanent consequences on the baby, resulting in the child being predisposed to cardiovascular disease, diabetes and cancer. (Misses-Alloy, G. , 2008) Education makes a fundamental difference in lives today. Armed with institutional qualifications, we gain better Job prospects and consequentially better financial prospects.
Consider poorer countries where an education is hard won and you can already envision a bleaker future. Furthermore, the influence of an optimal learning environment I. E. School can increase your ‘Q! IQ scores have been shown to increase by 2. 7 and 4. 5 points with every year of schooling and during summer vacations IQ scores have shown decreases and corresponding increases during the school year (Print, 2013, p. 71) Peer influence involves the type of friends that you surround yourself with. Peer influence encompasses the dangers of simply having the wrong peers as well as peer pressure.
Particularly during impressionable years such as adolescence; peer influence and peer pressure can have a magnified affect n an individual. Teens may feel obligated to adopt certain fads and trends that their peers are taking on and the need to feel accepted and a sense of belonging can drive them to to great lengths to fit in’. Domestic life encapsulates the environment of the household. This environment is shaped very strongly by the presence of authority figures primarily these being the maternal and paternal roles. Evidently, when domestic life is stable this has profoundly positive effects on the child. A Criticism on the Genetics of Psychopathy Essay.
When the child experiences a loving and healthy lifestyle, the child is able to grow and be shaped by these positive environments. With the absence of stability in domestic life and in some cases an absence of a home at all, there can be detrimental consequences to the child. In many instances, having a ‘rough childhood’, a rocky relationship with parents, negative childhood experiences or even no childhood at all will change the path of life of an individual negatively and permanently. Culture is defined as the behaviors and beliefs characteristic to a social/ethnic/age group (Merriam-Webster, n. . Web, Seep 2013). Culture plays a large role in defining who we are and essentially the surroundings that we most associate ourselves with. It takes the shape of our everyday domestic life, our lifestyle and the society we live in. There are a whole host of cultures embedded everywhere all around the world and this is perhaps an explanation for the variation around the world. Evidence supporting Nurture The nurture argument provides some strong and irrefutable cases that point to the idea that human beings are governed strongly by environmental influences.
It is not to be denied that ultimately, we are who we are as a result of a complex interaction of both genes and environment. Despite this, increasing evidence displays that more often than not environment has a larger impact on our traits and behavior. Take the Flynn Effect as an example. It was revealed in the asses by James Flynn a political scientist, that in all the countries for which data existed, there was a rise in IQ. These were dramatic increases with ‘scores rising by about three points every decade’ and some countries where there was a ’20 point increase between one generation’ (in Print, 2012: 71).
There are a number of proposed explanations for the Flynn Effect with the more likely being the effect of the modern environment on human intelligence. Children are spending more time in school, nutrition in many countries are at a high standard and the exposure of television, books, films and media in today’s society are some of the factors that make up our ‘modern environment’ A genetic explanation for the rise in IQ has been largely discredited (even by Flynn himself). Although it may have some effect on intelligence, it is restricted because as do many other things; there are host of factors that contribute to an individual’s intelligence.
Additionally, famous conditioning studies done by John Watson in the sass (Cherry, 2005) provides some strong support for Nurturing because it demonstrates that emotional responses can be conditioned in humans through the environment. In his experiments, Watson used a 9 month old male infant dubbed ‘Little Albert’ and exposed him to several objects or stimuli. These objects include a white rat, a white rabbit, a monkey, masks, burning newspaper, etc. Before conditioning, Little Albert displayed no fear to any of these objects. Then Watson began pairing the appearance of the white rat with a loud metallic clanging sound.
This time, Albert began to cry after being shown the white rat. Psychological indignation involves encouraging a subject to behave a certain way or have a desired reaction through positive or negative reinforcement. In this case, it was negative reinforcement and fear was associated with the white rat creating a conditioned response of fear in Little Albert. A Criticism on the Genetics of Psychopathy Essay. Nurture and Psychopath Some specific cases have shown a relationship with psychopath and these are studies where the results not only strengthen the nurture debate but may also explain what goes into making a psychopath.
Print (2013) makes the point that culture and society can influence our emotions – happiness as well as sadness. These an come in the form of the more obvious cultural conditions such as war, poverty and oppression. However, even seemingly stable societies can cause us to feel negative emotions and this is through stratification. Furthermore, societies can unwittingly create psychiatric disorders including psychopath. This is done through the labeling of mental illnesses and the dire consequences on an individual who is stigmatize and marginal’s by his/her society.
A ‘mad’ person may not feel ‘mad’ or self conscious if society and science did not label him/her so. Thus, we can see the consequences of society and one’s environment on a person. He argues that whilst psychopaths are a medical category, it is also a social category reflecting our attitudes towards personalities and traits that we as a society, struggle to understand. After all, it is society that places labels on certain groups and individuals and essentially all of us are defined by our society view of what is normal. Prenatal environment is undeniably crucial in the child development and further strengthens the Nurture argument.
There is evidence to show that prenatal smoking as well as prenatal cocaine use has a statistical correlation with early childhood conduct problems especially with prenatal smoking) and problems with neurological functions. (Managua et al, 2004)(William et al, 2011). Significantly Managua and his collaborators (2004) discovered that prenatal smoking resulted in an increased risk for antisocial behavior in children. This may have some impact on psychopath because antisocial behavior is one of the signature traits of the psychopath. Domestic life can also be linked to shaping a psychopathic individual.
Studies show that the presence of maternal depression can lead to children developing ’emotional and behavioral problems’ (Kim-Cohen, 2005). It is posited that depressed mothers end to provide a lack of emotional support, poor quality interactions and create ‘stressful family contexts’. This is supported by results showing that children with depressed mothers between ages 5 and 7 displayed an increase in antisocial behavior by age 7. This can be easily linked to psychopath as the PC-R (Hare’s Psychopath Checklist) marks antisocial behavior as one of the key characteristics in determining a psychopath.
In fact, psychopath comes under the medical diagnosis of anti social personality disorders. Research has shown that personality traits correlate with your geographical location. Say you’re living in America; this corresponds to a widely different culture and society surrounding you compared to if you were living in China for example. An effort involving 100 social, behavioral and biological scientists from 56 nations sent out 9 page questionnaires to 100 men and women volunteers.
All 56 nations were grouped into the following 10 geographic regions: North America, South America, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, Middle East, Africa, Oceania, South and Southeast Asia and East Asia. The questionnaires were designed to score on the 5 personality dimensions of the acronym ‘OCEAN’: Openness (are you open to new experiences? ), Conscientiousness (disciplined and dutiful), Extroversion (outgoing), Agreeableness (co-operation skills), Neurotics (are you emotionally unstable? ) (Schmitt et al, 2007). A Criticism on the Genetics of Psychopathy Essay.
If it were that genetics played a more important role in shaping an individual, it is expected that we would find personality traits evenly distributed across all cultures. However the results yielded startling cross cultural differences showing that ‘North Americans are more extroverted and less neurotic than people in East Asia. Africans are more agreeable than western Europeans… South Americans are more open to new experiences than south Asians. ‘ Print mentions that these differences also correlate with ‘economic and political variables, such as… The prevalence of status hierarchies. ‘(2013, p. 2) These cross-cultural differences signify the possibility of mental illness (as displayed in scores for neurotics), including psychopath correlating with where you live in the world. These results could potentially lead to the idea that your geographical location and corresponding culture and society could have a correlated risk of displaying psychopathic traits. Research has shown that our personality changes across a lifespan and these are marked with important life experiences which suggest that drastic changes in your lifestyle/ immediate surroundings can bring about significant changes in personality.
Psychologist Norma Han (in Print, 2013: 42) found by investigating a variety of different traits over a 50 year period, personality traits do not stabilize until people are in their ass. They have been shown to change with key life events such as marriage and employment status. In light of this, it can be argued that major negative life experiences such as a car accident can impact a person’s personality. Negative life experiences such as these may often have long term implications in the form post traumatic stress and depression.
These two chronic mental problems can encourage antisocial behavior towards other people and thus potential psychopathic traits. Another example of the strength of environmental influence is explored in Stanley Amalgam’s experiments which talk about the essence of obedience and significantly the dangers of blind obedience are. Subjects were told that the experiment was on the effects of punishment on learning and memory and their role clearly laid out as the teacher’. Their Job was to administer shocks of increasing voltage when the ‘learner’ would answer incorrectly.
The ‘learner’ was a hired actor. Amalgam’s intentions were to test how much pain an ordinary citizen would inflict on another person’ at the orders of an ‘experimental scientist’. The startling results showed that 65 percent of the subjects obeying orders punished the victim right up to the largest shock available. In the ‘Perils of Obedience’ (1974), Amalgam postulates that obedience has a fundamental characteristic that explains why normal members of society can become impelled to commit acts of evil and cruelty when instructed by an authority.
This characteristic causes the subordinate to feel an ‘instrument’ to carry out the demands of the authority. Consequently, the subordinate feels responsibility shifting entirely from him/her to the authority. Now the subject feels responsible to the authority and even how acceptably the task has been performed. This supports the Nurture debate because it suggests that capability of ‘evil’ is influenced strongly by environment. When placed in situations that obligate them to commit acts which are orally perverse, normal individuals can easily become willing instruments.
Towards psychopaths, Amalgam’s findings suggest that evil can arise even in individuals who are deemed mentally sound by society and more importantly individuals that do not have a supposed genetic predisposition to psychopathic symptoms. This greatly changes the view that psychopaths are what they are due to genetics. In addition, these findings emphasis that we ought to be more attentive to another danger in society that can arise through the power of obedience and authority.
This phenomenon has been known to re-occur many times throughout history, where wrought the power of suggestion and obedience whole countries and whole masses have been coerced and compelled to commit heinous crimes against humanity such as murder, rape and massacres. In these cases, it is more often than not that a particular group or race is being persecuted. In these instances, it has been a source of much confusion as to the innocence of the mass of people who had been instructed to carry out these acts. Are they to be Judged as mentally insane individuals?
Or simply human beings who had followed orders and ‘done their duty? Such was the case in Coachman’s trial where this heavily publicized court ruling was o decide the fate of an ex-Nazi AS-Lieutenant Colonel who facilitated the mass deportation of millions of Jewish people into ghettos and extermination camps. Doll Coachman was tried in Israel following his capture by Israeli agents in Argentina. In his testimony, Coachman demonstrates incredible normalcy – a thing that many find hard to believe considering the atrocities that he had committed.
Coachman claims that he believes he did nothing wrong and his defense for condemning millions of Jews to death was not because he hated them but because he had been under orders of the Fuehrer. (Loan, 2004, p. 22) Nurture and its Consequences Other than considering the strength of the evidence supporting the nurture debate, it is useful to postulate the potential consequences if nurture was proved to be more influential in determining psychopath than genetics. One of these consequences would be the sudden shift of attention away from human DNA and more towards environment.
Instead of tinkering away at bending DNA to our will, why not invest more attention towards looking at the effects of prenatal environment, learning environment and domestic abuse on children. Thus with the rise of nurture over nature, a rise in the importance of parenting would be expected in science and society. Another probable consequence would be the effect of nurture over nature for psychopathic individuals. The idea that some are innately programmed to be evil would give way to fresh hope that perhaps ‘evil’ in adults can be avoided by cultivating a positive environment during childhood.
This is similar to the popular What if question: what if Hitler had been accepted into art school The Nature Debate In the nature debate, it is defended that genetics have a larger impact on us as individuals than the environment. Naturists believe that psychological traits are unethically controlled and whilst the environment can have some impact, it is insignificant. Most naturists have abandoned the view that genes directly cause psychological traits and have since changed to claims that genes can only predispose us to certain behaviors.
Evidence supporting Nature and Psychopath An example of nature and biology playing an important role in determining psychopath is R. James Flair’s work on the ‘Neurological basis of psychopath (2003) reveals that studies with mortgaging scans (MR.) have shown that high levels of psychopath are linked with ‘reduced amygdaloidal volume’. This is the area of the brain where responses to fearful and sad facial expressions are processed and thus impairments in these neural structures may explain the reason why psychopaths are able to commit such transgressions against others.
However, it is important to note that the subjects investigated were not psychopathic individuals but only violent offenders. Blair notes that these differences are crucial because violent offenders still possess some morality. In addition, Blair highlights that studies done on psychopathic individuals with violent tendencies found that their frontal orate (heavily interlinked with the magical) were intact. Limitations of the Nature There is still a lot of research that provides evidence for the Nature debate, but these are more often than not methodologically flawed. A Criticism on the Genetics of Psychopathy Essay.
One example of is twin studies which have proved extremely useful in demonstrating the influence of genes and the influence of environment on human beings. The idea is that any differences between minimization (identical) twins are attributed to the environment because they share the same genetic information. Similarly, any differences between dogmatic (fraternal) wins will be attributed to genetics because fraternal twins share similar environments e. G. Through living in the same home.
But as of late, it has become evident that twin studies tend to exaggerate the genetic influence. For example, it is common for minimization twins to be mistaken for each other. Print (2013) suggests that being mistaken for each other or being treated the same will cause twins to behave more like each other. If being treated the same by other people will cause identical twins to behave more like each other, then isn’t the similarities that minimization twins caused by environmental influences?
The idea that being treated the same will yield similar behavior is supported by the research done by Sandra Scar and Louise Carter-Salesman (in Print, 2013: 38) who investigated minimization and dogmatic twins. The subjects were twins who had been mistaken about their zygotic I. E. Identical twins were misidentified as fraternal and fraternal twins misidentified as identical. They reasoned that fraternal twins mistaken for being identical would share more similarities than fraternal twins who did not have mistaken zygotic.
In their study, it was found that twins who looked more alike performed more similarly in an intelligence test. One example off twin study is when Viding and his collaborators (2005) demonstrated that psychopathic traits observable in children age 7 is under strong genetic influence. The two traits focused upon were the callous-unemotional trait (CUE) and antisocial behavior (AS). Viding explains that these 2 particular traits are usually early warning signs of psychopathic tendencies in the child.
The method Viding used to obtain results involved the use of teacher’s ratings of CUE and ABA for 3687 identical twins. They focused on the individuals who scored highly on these traits and named this ‘extreme CUE’ or ‘extreme ABA’. The scientists here were extremely careful and chose not to use parent ratings as this showed unreliability. We should be cautious about findings such as these because they do not acknowledge the possibility of the similarities between the identical twins being attributed to the fact that they are commonly treated the same.
Receiving similar treatment, as we have seen, has the potential to result in similar behavior. If this was the case, it might be that Viding results were not due to genetic influences and rather environmental influences. In defense to this, it may be argued that twin researchers not only use identical and arterial twins but also what is becoming increasingly useful is investigations done into twins raised together and twins that were raised apart. Studies investigating twins reared apart claim that identical twins reared apart show more similarities than fraternal twins reared apart.
This suggests a dominance of genetic influence over the environment as twins reared apart do not have a shared environment. A Criticism on the Genetics of Psychopathy Essay. But what many do not know is the limitations of these studies. Currently, there are 2 major registries for twins reared apart situated in Minnesota and Sweden. These are seed extensively for research and studies. However, what is not said is that the separated twins often have been in contact with each other before and during these studies. According to Print (2013, p. 9), the twins in these registrars had on average 112. 5 weeks in contact with each other and a startling 75 percent of twins had contacted each other during the separation. During this time, it is likely that the twins influenced each other We often see scientists touting around a ‘gene that codes for a particular psychological trait. ‘ When such claims are made, it is misleading to suggest hat genes can directly cause us to behave a certain manner because this is not the case!
When genes code for certain behavior, it is more correct to say that genes code for amino acids; and these amino acids are somehow involved in the production of cells which play a role in the production of behavior. It may be that these amino acids are neurotransmitters in the brain for example. In all cases, being genetically predisposed towards a psychological trait arises from a complex interaction of the environment as well as genetics. The Warrior Gene: MAO-L Recently some findings have revealed that the gene MAO-L (amniocentesis’s-low arrant) creates a predisposition to chronic violence and anger.