Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
In 1927, Sigmund Freud wrote the book, Civilization and Its Discontents. It is among the most famous works of Freud and has been in circulation in all parts of the world. Civilization and its Discontents talks about Freud’s views on the primary tension that exist between human beings and civilization.Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
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In this book he states that the instinctive will of individuals such as the desire to commit a crime are controlled by the setting of laws (that prohibit such vices) by civilization. In 1955, Herbert Marcuse wrote the book, Eros and civilization, which is a social critic of Freud’s Civilization and its Discontents.Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
In this book, he attempts to combine the theories of Freud to the ones of Max. Between 1976 and 1984, the French philosopher Michael Foucault wrote the book, The History of Sexuality. This book touches on Freud’s views on civilization and provides a different angle to the same as opposed to Marcuse’s opinion. The main aim of writing this paper is to outline the concepts laid out by Freud in Civilization and its Discontents and then use the works of Marcuse and Foucault to critique the same.
In his book, Freud generally defines the id as an accumulation of feelings. His implication is that there is no boundary between self and the environment. Human beings can act in accordance to their feelings without considering effects of the same on the external environment. The same is true for the environment against an individual. The actions of people and that of their external environment may disagree with the laws and standards of the society. Freud continues to say that the only thing that intermediate between the environment and an individual is the ego.Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
The ego has a responsibility of controlling requirements of natural instincts and deciding which one to satisfy against others.[1] On top of that, the ego decides on the particular time that an instinct demanded by self is satisfied. The id gives rise to the ego via the principles of pleasure and reality. Fraud defines the pleasure principle as pain out, pleasure in. This implies that it is the natural instinct of humans to acquire maximum pleasure while with a minimum amount of discomfort.
The desires to have fun and become comfortable dominate within the desires of self. As soon as ego is developed, an individual discovers the importance of external environment and tries to match their actions to conform to the boundaries that the society lays. On top of that, the individual realizes that pleasure is not always achieved and thus the need to adjust in order to fit.
According to Freud, the ego does not only try to create a state of equilibrium between self and the realities of the society, but also between the id and the super ego. Freud defines the super ego as that which eventually forms within the individual as they grow older (become parents) or the society in future.
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Some refer to this super ego as the conscious. It has the responsibility of threatening and judging the ego. In reality, an individual in such a scenario reflects on the consequences of conforming to their desires. The super ego thus develops the principle of reality and makes it embedded within an individual.Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
Freud relates all instincts of an individual to their sexual instincts (libido) and the instincts of being aggressive. According to him, the two work hand in hand against one another. They define the actions of individuals and are thus crucial in life. The amount of aggression during sex can make an individual to engage in criminal activities such as murder and rape.
Freud states that the society comes up with laws and regulations (super ego) whose functions are to control the capabilities of the libido. It is therefore only natural that there exists constant conflict between an individual and the society. Due to this, civilization deprives individuals of their liberty by making them to work.Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
Freud said that civilization repress the instincts that make an individual have the desire for pleasure while diverting instinctual energy to hard work. According to him, this repression was created by external necessity. Man has to work in order to survive and stay alive.
Marcuse agrees that much as natural scarcity compels people to work, repression is not all natural. He (Marcuse) argues that there exists social repression. The availability of technology created a desire to produce a surplus in the society. People are forced to work so that a surplus is generated.Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
People work to create more than is necessary so that eventually toil becomes instinct.[2] Marcuse adds that natural repression brought about by scarcity has been conquered and the desire for abundance taken effect. A world of pleasure has been created by the use of automation which has reduced unnecessary toil. According to Marcuse, the repression that currently exists is imposed by the society rather than nature.
Freud discovered the instrument of socio-political organization. This instrument is the instinct and the desire to satisfy the self. The concern of “One-dimensional man” is how this discovery has been implemented by the ruling class. Marcuse said that the ruling class intentionally came up with the “One-dimensional man” to use Freud’s views to control the working class.Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
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He argues that advancement in technology has not only created a non-repressive society of surplus, but also initiated a way of manipulating the people into being contented with the current system. Workers have not just been made to acknowledge capitalism, but their biological nature has been alienated to necessitate it.
Foucault neither solely dwell on psycho-analytic concept of Freud nor the social model of Marcuse but employs the concept of sado-masochism. Sado-masochism stem from two words, sadism and masochism which means pleasure in creating pain and pleasure in receiving pain respectively.Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
He repeatedly discussed repression in a way that distinguishes his concept from that of Marcuse and Freud. Foucault said that Marcuse exaggerated a lot on repression. That repression was taken by Freud and Marcuse to be negative. He added that the positive aspect of repression should be considered in the society. According to him, repression signified power. Foucault gave an example that a lot of institutions were successful as a result of repression.
In the light of the work of Marcuse, it is hard to say that the character of power and repression in individuals is simply realized after viewing them positively. Foucault realized that it is crucial to transform the views of people on repression and power in a positive perspective.[3] Power give rise to pleasure and pleasure relates to sexual desires. Power should be controlled in the society to make it productive. Controlling sexuality of the society would effectively lead to the stability of its economy.
The major difference between Foucault and Marcuse is that Marcuse wants to reduce the notion of pleasure and sex to be negligible while Foucault wants to remove it completely. Both Marcuse and Foucault agree that the character of an individual’s life is crucial within the society.Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
Civilization and Its Discontents Essay Questions
1
Consider Freud’s critique of communist thought. Where does Freud agree with communist insights? Where does he disagree?
Freud’s primary criticism of communism does not concern its interest in abolishing private property; on the contrary, he expresses sympathy for the poverty-stricken and offers no opinion on the value of communal ownership of property. Rather, Freud takes issue with the theory of humanity implicit in communist thought. Communism argues that human aggression and oppression are the result of private property; Freud, on the contrary, argues that human aggressive impulses are more deeply-seated than that. Violent behavior predates property, he says, and will likely be a part of the human portion for all time.Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
2
How does Freud explain, in psycho-analytic terms, the “oceanic” feeling that figures so prominently in organized religion? Does he consider this feeling to be a result of religion, or some prior experience?
Freud considers the oceanic feeling of eternity to be the vestige of a young child’s experience of total oneness with the world. Originally, Freud proposes, a child does not understand the difference between his own body – his ego – and the outer world. With time, he develops a sense of ego. However, the primal memory of this oneness with the world remains. Religion takes advantage of this feeling of eternal significance, giving it a specific vocabulary, but from Freud’s perspective the oceanic feeling does not actually come from religion.
3
Discuss Freud’s notion of happiness. What does Freud consider to be the primary route of human happiness? What are some alternate routes that happiness can take?Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
Freud writes, “What is called happiness in its narrowest sense comes from the satisfaction – most often instantaneous – of pent-up needs which have reached great intensity, and by its very nature can only be a transitory experience.” He thus conceives of happiness as a momentary release or indulgence of restrained instinctual desires and needs. The form of release is primarily sexual. For Freud, all happiness takes its form from the intense ecstasy experienced in orgasm. In derivative manifestations, happiness can also be found through the pursuit of arts and sciences and through the contemplation of beauty.
4
Freud opens his work with a long comparison of psychological development with other forms of development – particularly, the growth of cities. What does he accomplish with this comparison? What does he specifically say about it?Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
Freud’s comparison is really a search for a metaphorical representation of the development of the mind as he sees it. Freud thinks that though human beings develop and change, they always retain their prior states of being. Thus the infant mental life exists somewhere deep inside the adult form, and all intermediate forms also continue to live on. Freud uses the city of Rome in particular to illustrate this phenomenon; Rome exists in layers, with millennia-old structures remaining next to brand-new high-rises. The use of a city, particularly a civilization as prominent as Rome, also introduces the theme of comparing the individual psyche with the collective psyche of a civilization.
5
Freud proposes that, in a “civilized” culture, the more saintly one is, the more sinful one thinks oneself to be. How does he explain this paradox?Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
Freud notes that saintly behavior is the result of a strong super-ego. As evidence, he cites Franz Alexander’s clinical observations of a correlation between the strictness of parenting and the strength of this super-ego development. Where parenting is neglectful, the child is able to turn his reproaches outward at his parents; where parenting is attentive and blameless, the child turns this critical energy back on himself. Thus, he builds a relentless super-ego that fills him with guilt no matter how well-behaved he may be.
6
Freud mixes scientific evidence with poetic citation throughout his essay. What is the effect of this rhetorical method?
Freud’s mixture of science with literature has always been double-pronged – on the one hand, it has helped to make his writing widely accessible beyond the bounds of psychoanalysis, on the other, it has provided fodder for critics who seek to discredit Freud’s scientific pretenses. The overall effect, one might say, is an attempt to put his observations on the universal level of aesthetic achievement. Freud has a great respect for literary work, as is immediately evident in his anecdote about the “oceanic” feeling; simultaneously, he wishes to understand this accomplishment in terms of psychoanalysis. His ability to explain aesthetic phenomenon in psychoanalytic terms ties the deepest structures of the psyche to the most lasting productions of human art. Thus, Freud shows the significance of his ideas – the Oedipus complex, for instance – by yoking them to indisputably significant works of art – Oedipus Rex, by Sophocles.Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
7
What does Freud say about the Christian injunction to “love thy neighbor as thyself”?
Freud considers this maxim to be older than Christianity, but not particularly old in terms of the history of humanity. He also considers it to be absurd and disadvantageous. It is man’s natural impulse to love himself and those dear to him – to love, in other words, the people he loves. The Christian notion to love one’s enemies, in this context, is ridiculous to Freud and difficult to follow in practice. Indeed, aside from the occasional saint, Christians have had no trouble hating their enemies throughout their history, as their long history of persecuting Jews and heretics clearly shows.Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
8
What does Freud mean by the following terms and how does he link them?: super-ego, conscience, sense of guilt, need for punishment, remorse.
The super-ego is a psychological agency, the “higher self.” “Conscience” is one of the super-ego’s functions, in which it works as a censor and overseer of the ego’s intentions. The “sense of guilt” is the degree to which the super-ego feels guilt; thus it also corresponds to the strength of one’s conscience. The “need for punishment” is a masochistic feeling within the ego, which is being tormented by a sadistic super-ego. “Remorse” is an experience of guilt that occurs after the guilt-inducing action has taken place.
9
Freud concerns himself with the masochistic and sadistic impulses in human life. How does he explain the origin of these impulses? What are some of the social and cultural consequences of these phenomena?Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
Freud proposes that the two instincts he first identified in Beyond the Pleasure Principle – the life and death instincts – always coexist. When destructiveness (the death instinct) and Eros (the life instinct) commingle and are directed inward, the result is masochism – a sexual excitement via self-destructive actions. When they commingle and are directed outward, the result is sadism – a sexual excitement via the pain of others. Freud sees the prevalence of sadism and masochism in civilized society as evidence of the strengthening of the super-ego upon which society depends. The super-ego takes on massive importance and, in some cases, acts as sadist to the masochistic ego.Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
10
In a long footnote at the beginning of Chapter 4, Freud speculates on the transition from the primarily olfactory sexuality of animals to the primarily visual sexuality of humanity. Describe this speculative evolutionary model.Civilization And Its Discontents Essay
Freud argues that the shift from olfactory to visual sexuality occurred when, in his evolutionary course, man shifted from a crawling to an upright gait. At this point, the genitals were exposed and required protection, which inspired feelings of shame. With the shift to visual arousal, the prior olfactory arousal (which corresponded with the menstrual cycle) became taboo – hence the presence of periodic menstrual taboos in most native cultures. Ultimately, Freud suggests that the shift to visual sexuality altered the periodicity of arousal; whereas humans were once bound to the menstrual cycle for fertility, they become permanently capable of arousal with the change to an upright gait. Civilization And Its Discontents Essay