Learning of Arabs in Europe- Essay Assignment.
The influence of Arab learning on Europe is undeniable. Islamic scientific thoughts and philosophies introduced to Western civilization during the medieval period influenced different aspects of life in Europe. The works of Islamic scholars like Ghazali, Ibn Rushd, and Ibn Sina influenced Western philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, physics, and chemistry during the medieval era (Blake 56). A number of Western scholars translated important elements of Islamic science into Latin and studied Arabic during the Middle Age. Learning of Arabs in Europe- Essay Assignment.Crusade wars and trade helped transmit Islamic learning and science to Western civilization. Arab science played a significant role in Europe beginning from the medieval period to the European Renaissance and the ultimate rise of the continent.
Islamic civilization peaked during the medieval period, enabling it to inform European civilization through the Crusader kingdom and Sicily, and Andalusia. Islamic civilization was spread through the translation of medical, mathematical, science, and astronomy Arabic texts and Greek classics to Latin. Scientific and technological advancements through the Silk Road and Chinese discoveries including gunpowder originated from Arabic learning. The Islamic world’s Golden Age had original inventions that influenced various spheres of the European culture during the medieval period. A number of words loaned from Arabic exist in European languages such as English and Old French. Some of the notable loanwords include scientific terms such as alchemy, which is chemistry today, algorithm, and algebra. Learning of Arabs in Europe- Essay Assignment.
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The first practical step in examining the influence of Islamic learning on Europe is to scrutinize the status of Islamic civilization and science and their achievements that gave them the capacity to influence other civilizations. Islam’s exponential growth spanned vast areas from Spain to Turkestan and involved the integration of Islamic principles with cultures from Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Persia to form a new civilization that stood unrivaled for a very long time (Sonn 125). The Islamic emphasis on reflection and thinking, as well as encouraging the adherents to pursue knowledge passionately inspired the development of knowledge-based civilizations. A number of verses drawn from the Quran teach followers to utilize their reason and intellect to achieve a higher social status. The pursuit of scientific knowledge entailed studying the origin of natural phenomena like the earth, inner reality, and heavens that allowed Muslims to counter challenges that threatened their existence. Learning of Arabs in Europe- Essay Assignment.
The Quran and the deeds of Prophet Mohamed are the foundation of Islamic science. Islamic scientists cite the prophet and the Quran as their origin and guide for Islamic civilization. The limitless opportunity to seek knowledge through Islamic learning enabled Muslims to pursue the sciences and arts of other cultures in order to enrich their culture. Muslim scholars undertook this endeavor by translating the works of Indians, Greeks, and Persians so that they could preserve the works and retrieve them in the future. The scholars developed various sciences related to the religion domain and pure science that inspired the rapid growth of a civilization that remained unchallenged for a very long time. The religious science established by the Muslims included the hadith tradition, Islamic ethics popularly known as al-akhlaq, the Quran’s exegeses, and jurisprudence (al-Kalam). Islamic science inspired the development of Western science disciplines like astronomy, physics, algebra, chemistry, mathematics, and biology.
Astrology
Muslims studied astronomy in line with their religious tenets. Investigating the direction of their religious center, Mecca, eclipses, sunrises, and sunsets helped to guide prayers. The new moon also guided the times of pilgrimage and fasting known as the hajj. A number of verses in the Quran call upon Muslims to invest their time during the day and the night in studying the earth and the heavens so that they can understand the creator’s majesty and glory. Apart from the religious connection, astronomy helped Muslims to travel by guiding them to find directions in the desert at a time when no maps or compasses existed.
Muslims used astrology to understand the status of the shining stars in the skies. Many Islamic scholars emerged to engage in tireless astrological studies under the direction of rulers enthusiastic about understanding the subject. The scholars translated books like Almagest and Send Hind from the Greeks and the Indians respectively, giving detailed observations (Blake 35). The translation enabled Latin thinkers in the medieval era to acknowledge and acquire the work for future translations. Muslim scholars studied the ideas put forward by Ptolemy and criticized them for centuries. The ideas from the books informed astronomers during the Renaissance era like Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon. The new breed of scientists questioned the system developed by Ptolemy and came up with their own improved version of astronomy.
The most significant astrological innovations by Arab science entailed the observatories undertaken in Bagdad, Istanbul, Cairo, and other cities. The astrolabe and other astronomical instruments developed through Islamic science helped to promote astronomy. The Western Islamic regions like Toledo and Seville established observatories that enhanced Islamic astronomy that later spread to the European civilization. The support that Islamic scholars gave to Alfonso, the ruler of Castile, to establish a popular observatory during the medieval era exemplifies the influence of Islamic learning on European astronomy. European observatories strikingly resembled those of the Islamic civilization and took up Islamic observation tables known as the zij, the blueprint for contemporary astrology.
Various astronomical instruments used by Islamic scientists found their way to Europe through the Crusaders or Spain to promote the development of European astronomy. Prior to the interaction between the civilizations of Europe and Islam, the former had no idea about astronomy or the instruments for studying the subject. The move from Ptolemy’s methods in favor of those employed by Galileo and Copernicus shows the important role played by Muslim scholars like Tusi in the field of astronomy. European scholars including Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler adopted the mathematical methods used in performing calculations in astronomy by Battani, a Muslim scholar. The zij astronomy table used in the twelfth century by Muslim scholars found its way into European astronomy, specifically to help in the development of principles of astronomy that exist in the modern times (Hassaan). Copernican described the motion of heavenly bodies from translations made by Battani, Zarqali, and other Muslim scholars.
Medicine
The medical field in Europe traces its origin to Islamic science. A number of physicians informed about the impact of Islamic learning on modern medicine acknowledge the importance of medical encyclopedias such as the Tabaqat al-atibba developed by Ibn Usaybiah (Faruqi 451). Islamic physicians acquired important lessons from Greek, Indian, and Persian sources, which also enriched their medicine from Islamic science. Islamic teachings targeting medicine and the need to maintain a healthy society inspired physicians like Ibn Sina and zakariyya Razi to enjoy much fame in the medieval era. Razi wrote more than two hundred books related to medicine that later appeared in Latin translations. Learning of Arabs in Europe- Essay Assignment.One of his books gained popularity because it described typhoid and blisters before any other made an attempt to describe the conditions (Blake 23). Ibn Sina made a number of discoveries as exemplified in the book titled Qanun, used as a reference for the medicine world after its translation to Latin.
Great physicians in Spain like Ibn Rushd and Ibn Zuhar played important roles to promote the development of medicine from its Islamic origin to European civilization. Gerard Cremona made several translations of the Qanun, making it a reliable reference for medicine in the sixth century Europe. Arabs established the Salerno School to train medical students in Italy, who in turn, helped to advance medicine (Sonn 15). Constantine, a famous physician from Africa studied Islamic medicine and Arabic and later taught medicine and helped translate the work into Latin. The translations from Arabic science later found their way into various branches of pharmacology and medical sciences.
Mathematics
Muslim scholars paid much attention to mathematics from the seventh century. The importance of mathematics derived from the belief of the Muslims that the growth of science and philosophy relied on the reciprocal growth of mathematics. Several books translating mathematics from different languages like Greek and Indian to Arabic highlighted the value of mathematics to Islamic scientists. A famous Islamic scholar, Ibn Musa, developed Greek and Indian mathematical ideas into valuable information by connecting numerals and sifr- zero and formulating algebra as an important area of mathematics (Faruqi 460). Some of the other renowned Muslim mathematicians who influenced European mathematics include Ibn Sina, Abu Rayhan, Nasir Tusi, and Banu Musa.
The establishment of observatories by Muslim astronomers aimed at promoting precision in calculating astronomical data helped to develop mathematics. European scholars from Sicily and Spain learned about the ideas and works of Muslim scholars. The Europeans translated Islamic mathematics, specifically numerals from the Arabic versions to the European versions. Algebra grew in popularity in Europe and became the standard for mathematics after its translation from Arabic to Latin then to other European languages. Learning of Arabs in Europe- Essay Assignment.Leonardo Fibonacci, the pioneer of the Fibonacci method, traversed the Islamic world as a child in the company of his father before returning to Italy (Blake 56). Fibonacci, like other mathematicians, used the knowledge that they acquired from the Islamic mathematicians to come up with innovative methods that continue to inform modern mathematics.
Chemistry
The famed Muslim chemist Jabir Hayyan, popularly known as Geber, learned the science from Imam Sadiq. Geber wrote several books in Arabic that European scholars translated to other languages as a reference for the field of chemistry (Sonn 36). Medieval Europe acknowledged Geber as the pioneer of chemistry, a title maintained up to the present day. Modern chemistry traces the discovery of nitric and sulfuric acids to the works of Geber. Another Muslim scientist, Zakariyya Razi¸ developed a new form of chemistry to transform the subject from its spiritual and metaphysical character. Razi pioneered the idea of medical treatment for stubborn ailments and discovered alcohol. Learning of Arabs in Europe- Essay Assignment.
Islam and the European Renaissance
The Crusaders helped European scholars to learn about the advanced status of Arabic scholarship. Through the Greek collections of Islamic learning material, Europe learned about important concepts in sciences, arts, and other disciplines. The input by Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Hippocrates lasted for many centuries due to the strong influence of Islamic science. The concepts proposed by the aforementioned scholars were previously unknown to the Europeans. Islamic studies in fields like mathematics, medicine, chemistry, and astronomy surpassed the ideas held by European scholars at the time. Thus European civilization acquired important concepts from Arabic science and way of life owing to the advanced nature of the latter. Learning of Arabs in Europe- Essay Assignment.
During the eleventh century, Europe experienced a force of economic and cultural revival. The major causes of the Renaissance were the culmination of the invasions by the Magyar and the Vikings, as well as, the growth of several monarchies. The stability resulting from the changes in Europe promoted the growth of cities and commerce and an increase in the population and affluence of the people, especially in the middle class (Faruqi 452). Urbanization centralized the wealth and promoted the growth of schools and the culture of seeking intellectual development. Most schools and colleges introduced curriculums that endeavored to understand the Greek and Latin Classics, therefore, providing an incentive for the discovery of the work of Islamic learning.
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Three major geographical regions provided an opportunity for contact between the Latin and Islamic civilizations during the era between the eleventh and the thirteenth century. The contact between the two civilizations facilitated the transmission of important knowledge from the Islamic world. The regions that provided an important link to the Islamic and European civilization included Sicily, Spain, and Southern Italy, as well as the Holy Land area in the Islamic side. Spain gave the most significant contact between the two civilizations by slowing the movement of the Crusaders, ambassadors, and Italian traders to the Islamic world so that they could return and awaken Europeans about the intellectual strength of the empires in the Arab regions.
Works Cited
Blake, Stephen P. Astronomy and Astrology in the Islamic World. Edinburgh University Press, 2016.
Faruqi, Yasmeen Mahnaz. “Role of Muslim Intellectuals in the Development of Scientific Thought.” Jurnal Ilmiah Peuradeun, vol. 3, no. 3, 2015, pp. 451–466.
Hassaan, Galal A. “Innovation of Mechanical Machinery in Medieval Centuries, Part IV: Mechanisms, Gear Trains and Cranes.” Innovation, vol. 2, no. 4, 2014.
Sonn, Tamara. Islam: History, Religion, and Politics. John Wiley & Sons, 2015. Learning of Arabs in Europe- Essay Assignment.