Social Learning Theory Essay Assignment.

The psychological functioning of the social learning theory involves reciprocal interactions between our environment, our behaviour and our cognition. According to Albert Bandura, behaviour is learnt through observing and imitating; that behaviour is learnt through three interactive systems. Social Learning Theory Essay Assignment.That is: external stimuli, external reinforcement and cognitive mediation.

2.1.1 THE SELF CONCEPT

The way in which we assess ourselves affects our social comparison. Higgins (1983) hypothesizes that there are at least 3 classes of self-conceptions. The actual, ideal and ought self. Where discrepancies arise between any two of these brings out some kind of uneasiness. The tense of self-conception Schutz (1964) also has an effect on the here and now. (Markus & Nurius 1986, Nuttin & Lens 1986). Another difference in self-representation is a negative Sullivan (1953) or positive self-concept. Beck (1967) maintains that those who wind up depressed mostly have a depressive self-schema influencing aspect of their information processing. (Derry & Kuiper 1981, Kuiper & Derry 1981, Kuiper & MacDonald 1982, Ingram et al 1983, Kuiper & Higgins 1985, Pietromonaco 1985).Social Learning Theory Essay Assignment.

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Singer et al. argue that the representation of self is derived from the perception and organization of one’s behaviour their wishes and needs. (Singer & Salovey 1985, Silverman & Weinberger 1985). Similarly, Fast (1985) reports that affect plays a major role in determining connections among our experiences. The way in which those in our environment or those we hold in high regard react to our behaviour or to events that we observe teach us to behave in a manner that is more acceptable to society.

Even so, individuals have varying self-concepts. When these self-concepts do not agree emotional disorders may arise (Higgins et al 1985, 1986). Linville (1982) however suggests that a complex self-structure can protect one from emotional turmoil. Social Learning Theory Essay Assignment.Having multiple identities may be important in maintaining mental health (Kessler & McRae 1982, Coleman & Antonucci 1983) only if they can be successfully integrated (Thoits 1983, Pietromonaco et al 1986).

People also make inferences from their internal physiological (arousal) reactions (Bandura 1977), and their cognitions, emotions, and motivations (Harter 1983, Anderson 1984, Anderson & Ross 1984). Anderson finds that other people’s thoughts and feelings have even greater weight in determining self-perceptions than do behaviours.

Representations of the self also come from direct attempts at self-assessment, usually that of their tasks and abilities. One would generally accept or take on threats and challenges if they have a positive self-concept and feel competent in that field or where the outcome would have long term effects. (Trope 1986)Social Learning Theory Essay Assignment.

People learn about themselves through social comparison and direct interaction with their social environment as well. (McGuire 1984, McGuire & McGuire 1982) (Baldwin 1897, Cooley 1902, Mead 1934). People compare themselves with superior others to evaluate themselves and inferior others to feel better about themselves (Brickman & Janoff-Bulman 1977, Gruder 1977, Taylor et aI1983)

The development of the self-concept becomes increasingly abstract. It starts as overgeneralising; for example, when we were children everything was either good or bad. “I like music” “I am not smart”. This we learnt from our environment, from what our care givers, parents and teachers, taught us or their affect after a certain act was performed. Later we learn to differentiate. To see that “I like this genre and not that” “I am good at math and bad at English”. Harter’s (1983)

There is not a static self, only a working self- a current self- constructed from one’s social experiences. Individuals are heavily influenced in all aspects of judgment, memory, and overt behaviour by their currently accessible pool of thoughts, attitudes, and beliefs (Nisbett & Ross 1980, Higgins & King 1981, Sherman et al 1981, Snyder 1982). However, the core aspects of the self-concept are both stable and malleable, thus making them relatively unresponsive to social environments.Social Learning Theory Essay Assignment.

2.1.2 SELF REGULATION

To understand how one directs and controls their own actions, focus must be on the person and not the regulators. For one to regulate themselves the aspect of goal setting and cognitive preparation for actions must be looked into; the efficacy of thoughts and feelings over ability and of roll ability over behaviour (Bandura et al 1982). People tend to take on tasks depending on the expectancy of their performance Kirsch (1985).

Needs, motives and values have been hypothesised to influence the selection of goals. Needs are internal organic motivators that inspire interaction with the social environment (Murray 1938). Even so, what satisfies them is a person’s values, experience and self-concept. Constantian (1981) suggests that the motives to behaviour are more specific and learned, while values direct the form that motivated behaviour will take.Social Learning Theory Essay Assignment. Self-conceptions are motivated by the individuals past experiences, their way of seeing the world and developmental pressures (Wicklund & Gollwitzer (1982) and Markus & Nurius (1986)).

The discrepancy between where a person is and where a person wants to be is presumed to motivate attempts at behaviour if they believe they can achieve the standards. If not, they are likely to withdraw. Self-focused people are more likely to regulate themselves more efficiently. That is, more in line with the standards, thus they are more likely to achieve set goals (Carver & Scheier (1981)).

Greenwald (1982, Breckler & Greenwald 1986) suggests that what is really being affected by self-awareness manipulations is the person’s ego involvement; if the manipulation calls up one of the person’s “ego tasks,” then the person will be ego-involved and will regulate behaviour more effectively. In disagreement, Wicklund (1986) suggests that the dynamically oriented person is focused on his/ her relationship to the environment is better regulated but while behaving experiences a loss of self.Social Learning Theory Essay Assignment.

In reconciliation of these and other conflicting theories, the subjective experience of loss of (Privette 1983) or effective self-regulation may reflect a lack of attention to the self. This does not mean, however, that it is not involved. The person may experience a subjective loss of self when performing behaviours that are congruent with the ego ideal. Instead of expressing a loss of self, these behaviours may reflect the fullest involvement of self, experienced as a merging of the “I” with the behaviour it enacts.

2.1.3. SOCIAL PERCEPTION AND CHOICES

Individuals appear to be differently sensitive to stimuli that are self-relevant and to privilege the processing of these stimuli. For example, where self-relevant adjectives are introduced to the unattended ear the performance of a task was impaired. Bargh (1982)Social Learning Theory Essay Assignment.

It is likely that self-confident behavioural predictions, attributions and inferences would be made in in referral to one self. However, any behaviour that is enacted in inconsistency with their self-view would quickly be explained away by situational attributions. (Kulik et al 1986).

People prefer to seek more positive information on the self, and hence will typically behave to regulate affect to defend themselves from negative emotional states. Greenwald (1980), C. R. Snyder et al (1983), and Taylor & Brown (1986) this is done to maintain the previous mostly positive self-concepts. When they receive information that is negative individuals look to place themselves in the company of those who will provide support of one’s own self-concept. Persons also vary their self-definitions and take on their working self-concept so that they are able to claim to be the best at activities that are most personally relevant and will regulate affect to that which is self-affirming.Social Learning Theory Essay Assignment. (Tesser & Campbell 1980, 1982, Tesser & Smith 1980, Tesser & Paulus 1983, Tesser et al l 984)

Generally, people are not presumed to be consciously self-enhancing. They are positively biased about their past and futures and may even take on self-denigrating behaviour in the way of self enhancement such as drug use. The illusory perception of control, self-handicapping, excuse making, compensatory self-inflation and reducing self-awareness (drinking to reduce the associated negative affected state after a negative experience); are all ways of maintaining the positive self-conception they once had or which they hope to achieve and for one reason or the other are unable to. By doing so they have a ready-made excuse for their poor performance.

Human beings have the desire to achieve completeness- the conception of our possible selves. Incomplete people are interrupted in the process of enacting relevant behaviour and therefore seek alternative symbolic routes to achieving the self-definition in the eyes of others. This for instance may be done in the way of wearing a crucifix for those who feel the need to be seen as true dedicated Christians.Social Learning Theory Essay Assignment.

Cantor and Khilstorm (1986) sought to show the close relation between self-knowledge and self-regulation following the notion that the life tasks an individual chooses to undertake is determined by their self-knowledge. Where they know themselves to be competent, they would plan to take less time on the task and would be more confident in themselves. Difficult ones would have more elaborate plans. The elaboration of these plans was associated with outcomes such as grade point average and perceived stress.

2.1.4 INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS AND SELF AWARENESS

To achieve one’s goals, a person must learn to negotiate with others. Interactions are sometimes focused on achieving personal goals; because of the dependency people have on one another they are shaped and shape their social interactions.

Social perception as seen earlier is generally created by judgement on self-relevant dimensions and well elaborated self-schemas. People would interact with others similar to themselves and behave like they do except where only a moderate level of similarity is preferred (Snyder & Fromkin 1980, Markus & Kunda 1986); or where a high level of uniqueness is required (Snyder & Fromkin 1980, Kernis 1984); or to make oneself feel better about negative self-conception by seeing others as being in a worse condition (Wills 1981, Taylor et al 1983 , Wood et al 1985).Social Learning Theory Essay Assignment.Even so, people look for validation in relationships; validation of the desired self. Schlenker (1984)

Different audiences inspire different motives for interaction. It may be social power and influence over others where he/she is seen as the focal point of all things relevant to them, putting them in the social lime light. Another reason may be the desire to attain approval or the attention of those whose opinion we value most. To belong o a group or person that affirms our self-concept. (Cheek & Hogan 1983, Hogan 1982). The internal audience may have a person desiring predictability and consistency, seeking signs in the way of achieving the desired ideal self.

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The responsiveness of external audience and the satisfaction to the inner audience has an effect on the quality of the relationship. (Cheek & Hogan 1983, Buss & Briggs 1984, Schlenker 1985b), The goal of the interaction and the audience (external or internal) will determine how and if a person will try to construct a different identity using impression management.Social Learning Theory Essay Assignment.

Impression management can either be conscious or unconscious. Conscious impression management depends heavily on the individual’s level of self-awareness and has a very close link to self-regulation. The unconscious impression management is automated and often happens in defence of the desired self-image to maintain the perceived self-concept. (Swann 1983, Schlenker 1985b, Tedeschi & Norman 1985).

People’s reactions can be both to their own and to others behaviour. These reactions can either be congruent or incongruent to feedback. Congruent reactions are usually to self-affirming, while incongruent feedback may be done in one of three ways: cognitively, to reconcile discrepancies, a blatant action against it, or act in accordance with it. The latter results in cognitive dissonance, however, one may or may not accept the new identity they continue to act in that way so as to fit in or belong attaining affirmative affect of their self-concept.

Whether a person acts to dismiss or to confirm another’s expectations depends on whether the expectancy is positive or negative (Miller & Turnbull 1986) and on how big the discrepancy is (Fiske & Taylor 1984). In addition, reactions to feedback depend on whether the person is aware of the other’s expectation (Hilton & Darley 1985) and whether the person believes that others will learn of it (Baumeister & Jones 1978).Social Learning Theory Essay Assignment. Finally, the person’s reaction depends on dispositional factors such as whether the disconfirmed self-view is one that the person is highly certain of (Swann & Ely 1984), has a self-schema for (Markus 1977, Wurf & Markus 1983 , Jussim 1986), or considers highly important (Fiske & Taylor 1984); situational factors such as the status equality with the other (Jussim 1986); the perceived costs and rewards of reacting (Miller & Turnbull 1986); and the opportunities for doing so (Miller & Turnbull 1986). Selective interpretation, selective attention and selective memory may be employed to cope with disconfirming feedback

2.1.5 CONCLUSION

With the varying understanding of self-individuals have and their working self-concepts it is evident that our dependency on one another has us finding ways to fit in a social setting where we have our goals and needs met. where our working self-concept is not affirmed by or social group of choice, we alter our self-concept to achieve our goals. Individuals with a high level of self-awareness do this in a less damaging way and are better able to place themselves in the company of individuals who help them achieve their goals and improve their level of self-worth. This paper seeks to answer the research question does self-awareness level affect social acceptance? For students of psychology in Kenyatta University, it is assumed that they have higher levels of self-awareness; therefore, we seek to discover how their search for social acceptance is affected by their awareness levels.Social Learning Theory Essay Assignment.

REFERENCES

• Anderson, S. M., Ross, L. 1984. Selfknowledge and social inference: I. The impact of cognitive/affective and behavioral data. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 46:280-93
• Cantor, N., Kihlstrom, J. 1986. Personality and Social Intellig
• Cheek, I. M., Hogan, R. 1983. Self-concepts, self-presentations, and moral judgments. See Suls & Greenwald 1983, pp. 249- 73
• Higgins, E. T. , King, G. A., Mavin, G. H. 1982. Individual construct accessibility and subjective impressions and recall. J. Pers. Soc. Psyclwl. 43:35-47
• Higgins, E. T. 1983. A theory of discrepant self-concepts. New York Univ. Unpublished. Social Learning Theory Essay Assignment.
• Higgins, E. T., King, G. A. 1981. Accessibility of social constructs: Information processing consequences of individual and contextual variability. See Cantor & Kihlstrom 1981, pp. 69-122
• Higgins, E. T., Klein, R., Strauman, T. 1985. Self-concept discrepancy theory: A psychological model for distinguishing among different aspects of depression and anxiety. Soc. Cognit. 3:51-76
• Higgins, E. T., Strauman, T., Klein, R. 1986. Standards and the process of selfevaluation: Multiple affects from multiple stages. See Sorrentino & Higgins 1986, pp. 23-63
• Kuiper, N. A., Higgins, E. T. 1985. Social cognition and depression: A general integrative perspective. Soc. Cognit. 3:1-15
•  Kuiper, N. A., MacDonald, M. R. 1982. Self and other perception in mild depressives. Soc. Cognit. 1 :223-39
•  Kuiper, N. A., Rogers, T. B. 1979. Encoding of personal information: Self-other differences. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 37:499- 514

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• Kulik, J. A., Sledge, P., Mahler, H. I. M. 1986. Self-confmnatory attribution, egocentrism, and the perpetration of selfbeliefs. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 50:587-94
• Kunda, Z. 1985. Motivation and inference: Self-seTliing generation and evaluation of causal theories. PhD thesis. Univ. Mich.
• Linville, P. W. 1982. Affective consequences of complexity regarding the self and others. In AjJect and Cognition, ed. M. S. Clark, S. T. Fiske. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
• Markus, H., Nurius, P. 1986. Possible selves. Am. Psychol. 41:954-69
• Markus, H., Sentis, K. 1982. The self in social information processing. See Suls 1982, pp. 41-70
• Mead, G. H. 1934. Mind, Self, and Society. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
• Swann, W. B. Jr. 1983. Self-verification: Bringing social reality into harmony with the self. See Su1s & Greenwald, 1983, pp. 33-66
• Trope, Y. 1983. Self-assessment in achievement behavior. See Suls & Greenwald 1983, pp. 93-121
• Wurf, E. , Markus, H. 1983. Cognitive consequences of the negative self. Presented at Ann. Meet. Am. Psycho!. Assoc., 91st, Anaheim, CA. Social Learning Theory Essay Assignment.