Management and Strategy Essay Assignment.
With the dawn of organizations and firm-oriented trade there have been countless attempts to define the professional community structure of social sciences.
Declining structural paradigms of structural operations, though still concretely used
globally, are paving way for alternative adaptive approaches. Similar Development
theories have been subject to continuous and discontinuous differentials. (Keichell,
2012). One of the most crucial questions to address while dealing with changes in
development theories is what actually changes with a person as he progresses
through life and what does not. Erikson (1950) identified certain functions that took
priority and some that aroused uncertainty and conflict in various stages of
development. Levinson (1978) compared the internal reactions of a person when
there were external anomalies present at each stage. Gould (1978) meanwhile
reiterated the relationship of identification to paint a clearer picture on what changes
through development. A decade ago, Organizational Scientists were confined in
their researches which were over headed by assumptions on social and human
reality and were encouraged to take on a more cosmopolitan trend to guarantee
advancements. Management and Strategy Essay Assignment. Today the field of organizational science and management has diversified with affiliations from networks within sociology, economics and psychology (Mullins, 2007): The weed patch has proliferated (Pfeffer, 1993). It is
however crucial for organizational sustainability that Theories disassociate from
widening gaps between the human and natural world. This essay will aim to discuss
the emergence of different research paradigms on development of theory,
simultaneously highlighting key changes in the external ambiences within operations
and corresponding strategies implemented. Management and Strategy Essay Assignment.
All paradigms that see daylight are reflective of the researcher’s perspectives on pre
laid down assumptions and angles of reality. The research paradigms that are
triggered by natural and social sciences can be classified on its outlook to this reality
perception as positivist or interpretivist. Management and Strategy Essay Assignment. Positivist Researches adamantly believe that principals of organizational management and consequently implemented strategies should be moulded on accumulated facts and data. Reality according this approach is always measurable and objectified (Kiechell,2012).
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A typical positivist theory would be concentrated on efficiency and how to economically maximise labour after
drawing conclusions on data analysis that support a certain research design
(Denhardt, 2008). Simon (1946) believed that for appropriate research theories to be deduced, features surrounding the organizational operations have to be objectified
and well defined for easier acquirements of results and also called for controllable
manipulations to acutely test these variables. Dahl(1947) , in contrast, explicated that
Science could not ably be used as a link to connect the space from ‘is’ to ‘ought’ and
not all variables are subjective to excludability or vice versa. Management and Strategy Essay Assignment.The differences
embarked on the viewing of efficiency as a value-free goal.The industrial revolution
bought with it an unprecedented rise in productivity efficiency harboured within
industries that utilized both machinery and human capitol. Taylor’s Principles of
Scientific Management focused on the fundamental change in this economic
upsurge, summarizing advanced management strategies as quantifiable and easily
transferable to respective large scale technology-driven industry platforms (Makhija,
2003). Management and Strategy Essay Assignment.
Employing a more orthodox approach to study and analyse management, Frederick
Taylor provided scientific illustrations to his ideologies on positivist theories . The
idea that man was just an extended entity to the machine he works with proved able
in introducing efficiency enhancement measures for both. Both Taylor and the
researchers of the Hawthorne studies employed orthodox empirical outlooks to the
study of organizations and management strategies while drawing on the importance
of work environment quality as a tool to increase productivity (Burrell & Morgan,
2006). A uniform managerial technique was thought to have been evolved, the
thought of which, now seems like distant banter. More tried and tested approaches
were discarded in favour of this new model with management also now sparingly
reluctant to experimenting with otherwise seemingly productive and pragmatic
protocols. Scholarly discussions on Taylor’s vision revolved around two major key
points. The first being a more conventional orthodox perspective which focussed on
the shift to a rational attitude from a empirical one to management strategies. This
also encroached on ideals pertaining to aggregation of machinery to accelerate
company efficiency firm .The second point was the implementation of Taylor’s
principles to foreign unchartered markets and the know –how associated with this
(Kiechell,2012)
Another complication in the approaches of Dahl(1947) and Simon(1946) also had to
do with the human factor. Dahl was opposed to the concept of studying human
behaviour in organizations to support relevant advancements of management strategy theories. Dahl’s stance was more appropriate for an applied approach
clearly exemplifying the tensions among researchers at the time. It is important to
note that both Simon and Dahl did agree that scientific studies can be deemed
beneficial to any field. The positivist’s approach encouraged duplication of studies
and ease of conducting necessary manoeuvring within, to suit the scenario.Taylors
Positivist methodology which set benchmarks in technocratic management
processes was not quick to grasp the hindrances in practically implementing off-field
scientific management. Though much consideration was given to the potential head
winds of resistance such as unions, and much importance laid down for advocating
favourable working conditions, society was seen as an extended industrial element
where techno-organizational aspects were preferred over socio-economic bases
(Kiechell,2012). Theories originating from the interpretivist paradigm are of the notion
that the human world cannot be measured using scientific matrixes .Organizations
are entitled to be studied from within , with heavy importance laid on the
perspectives of workers. Interpretive paradigms cultivate belief that human values
will eventually over ride scientific hypotheses (Weber,2004). While the Hawthorne
studies initially were designed to cater to scientific concepts, it later resonated an
equal indulgence in human interactions within the organizations and its subsequent
effects on efficiency (Denhardt, 2008) through their conclusions. Simon’s theories on
positivist research paradigms were rejected by Chris Argyris (1973) stating them as
an emotionless approach that undermined the vitality of human and organizational
development, branding the approach as emotionless, even though both parties
concurred about the human tendency to behave rationally. Normative values were
never deemed significant for positivist routes according to Argyris , which always
ending up objectifying them and ignoring the human factor. Management and Strategy Essay Assignment. Management and Strategy Essay Assignment. Simon critically responded arguing that it was up to workers whether to embrace organizational authority. While positivists looked for general laws to mould decision making
attributes in organizations which would further help amend the status quo as
compared to the preference laid on studying human factors like emotions, intentions
and perspective; the one’s which interpretivist usually opted for.
It is a fact that research is unable to progress within a vacuum especially bonded by
social systems and political inconsistencies that can dismantle
research(Henderson,1989) . This is a given belief especially amongst interpretivist
researchers who appreciate the entities of humanity, truth and realism bounded
within social foundations. Explicit adhering to proven concepts and plans of
researches based on subjective perspectives facilitate ontology specific derivations
(Weber, 2004). Furthermore, thorough evaluation of the timings of the rise of
positivist trends saw the simultaneous lack of non-positivist consistency throughout
history (Action,1967).The comparative insignificance of the human factor in the
positivist approach does take its toll on its ethical and moral high ground. Positivism
does imply mandatory ethical over heads on the part of the researcher (Miles &
Huberman, 2004) and it can also be projected as a morally motivated endeavour to
uplift societal norms and society as a whole (Merleau-Ponty, 1999) and also as
“boundless progress” (Morick, 2005; Mouton & Marais, 2003). Management and Strategy Essay Assignment. It will be injustice to
view positivism as an un-ethical paradigm approach, but the unethical repercussions
of the same cause is an undesired consequence. The objectifying of human capital
to suit research subsets and low concerns on the emotional nexuses involved is
almost a direct contrast while denouncing McCullagh’s (2001) vision that forbids
people to be considered as means. A similar research investigation would imply
around the lines by referring that people are taken care of like billiard balls
(Makhija,2003). Management and Strategy Essay Assignment.
The Principles of Scientific Management catered to the dire needs of its time-
bridging gaps between developing technologies and obsolete organizational means.
It helped address problems of reduced productivity and provided a wide scope of
managers with a kit of management and administrative tools. However following
these paradigms by heart at the centre of any organization have proven to be self
implicated voyeur of destruction. It is not practical to assume similar roadblocks on a
naively similar path to success for every organization. Henderson (1989) states that
if every business could develop as such, there would be an infinite market available;
somewhere, where entities work harmoniously to contribute to synergy. As this was
not the case, it became crucial to possess a specific "unique" advantage over
competing firms.
Classical orthodox speculations on business competitions were often too simplistic
that they were considered redundant with their mediocre contribution to
understanding the field mostly because it holds true the assumption that the
business ambience operates within perfect competition, the same theoretical utopia
that never existed and plausibly never will (Andrews,1971) .The Resource Based
View advocates strengthening of "core competencies" and "strategic capabilities" to
put forward a competitive strategy that prioritises the uniqueness of the viable
resource the organization possesses. Focussing on the non substitutable
capabilities of the firm would eventually help it fend off competition effectively
according to Wernerfelt’s Resource Based View (Martin, 2014). However not every
difference between competitors can be perceived as a genuine strategic benefit. The
organization must strive to have a feel of uniqueness in the marketplace that comes
with the possession of a product/service attribute that reflects a "key buying criterion"
(Coyne,2001). This advantage of uniqueness is durable only if there are constraints
restricting the competition for replicating this "key criterion" on to their operations.
Simultaneously the advantage ceases to be sustainable once this gap of uniqueness
is closed down (Coyne,2001). As Henderson (1989) reiterates, it is imagination
coupled with logic that fuels strategy. Davis(2015) explicates the need to find a
middle ground to achieve "managerial relevance" with the varying nature of
organizations , when it comes to researching paradigms. With every organization
having different departments and different members with key roles it is hard to relate
to the more careless role free tactics employed in the past (Keichell,2012). The
search for a unified management strategy to enhance development has often
faltered just as following the strategy of close competitor is not a pragmatic solution,
resulting in no viable advantage (Martin, 2014). It is with dedicated resources and
foresighted counter strategy that an organization must respond to its competitor’s
successful strategy (Henderson,1989). There exists a view that the relevancy and
authenticity of a research can be judged by the estimates of citations it has been
subjected to (Davis, 2015). Organizations can find themselves in deep waters if they
were to follow any authentic researches as gospels.
Researchers have highlighted how dangerous it is, to often confuse strategy with
planning (Martin,2014). Organizations find it more convenient to settle for short term
plans rather than opt for long term strategies, chasing financial incentives. As the
case of the Winchester House developed it was made clear than sometimes even
Financial pursuits, as an excuse, are not required for people to stray away from
strategy. With the sole objective to keep the construction going, the plan for the
development of the house simultaneously developed as the house took shape and
expanded. There was no "practical purpose" and the lack of strategy was
unforgivable. Management and Strategy Essay Assignment. Organizations tend to over plan their operations to abide by financial constraints laid down earlier and to adhere to budget restrictions. Costs are "comfortable" as they can be blended with and manipulated to stick to immediate plans(Martin,2014). The striking examples of revenue and cost planning
interpretation reveal anomalies in the plan which can make the overall long-term plan
redundant. Aimlessly clinging on to plans that promise to give organizations better
market reach and share will eventually prove futile. The market shares are just but a
meaningless value unless it tends to denote the specification boundaries that helps
the organization stand out (Henderson,1989). Management and Strategy Essay Assignment.
It is often mesmerising as to how much the most apt course of action differs from the
chosen course when an organization and its management face hindrances. It is
necessary to have a managements are various levels to provide immediate
supervision to the employees and provide necessary guidance, following company
protocols. Development is often stagnant without a clear management strategy,
unmanaged change taking ages to occur (Henderson, 1989). Evolution of the
emergent strategy as proposed by Henry Mintzberg in 1978 laid down an alternative
approach to management strategy. Managers were encouraged to be more
conscious in the work environment and issue changes to promote productivity on
instinct. Such a scenario saw managers making more innovative decisions which
sometimes did not incline with pre set intentional objectives (Henderson, 1989). It is
at the intersection of two relative forecasts, one favouring high predictability and the
other signifying low volatility, on which the flaws of this system came to light.
Managers were not trusted to make the right choices with regards to scenarios of
market fluctuations and inconsistencies and this system was open to its critics. Management and Strategy Essay Assignment.
Martin(2015) explicates that questioning a Manager’s ability to effectively issue
successful strategies could narrow innovative horizons in future strategy making
processes. In contrast to the aforementioned opinion, he believes that it is through
observing what works and what does not in a business environment, that a manager
can improve his capabilities and make necessary adjustments accordingly. The role
of the manager according to this vision demanded more confidence which was
rightly due (Martin,2015). Management and Strategy Essay Assignment.
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The emergence of assorted perspectives coupled with the rise in number of
researchers relentlessly aiming to lay their mark on the field of research paradigms
and their study on strategy it is necessary to not blindly abide by a scheme that may
or may not be fitting for an organization (Davis, 2015). Drooling over the rewards and
incentives associated with publishing, Researches have been generated from
scratch, some evolved and some manipulated to provide service for varied
scenarios. Davis (2015) disappointedly states that in the current market, Novelty is
often more appreciated than truth. The benefits of a research to the career of the
researcher and to the knowledge development of a potential organization are
surprisingly not always even, with the incentive scale tilting to the individual career
over advancement of science. Sometimes Experimental strategies can often be
mistaken as successful if the statistical relations are tested on "archival data" with
inconsistencies causing significant adulterations in actual data (Davis, 2015). Management and Strategy Essay Assignment.
Researches find more benefits in asking provocative questions and raising doubts
and tinkering with unwanted complexities than from answering straightforward
questions (Davis,2010). With Scholars encouraged to conduct managerial relevant
researches, incentives to publish material on strategy and other aspects of
organizational research have never been paralleled. Managers were encouraged to
use strategies that reflected theories and yet simultaneously seem non-conventional
in all aspects. The relationship between methodical approaches, abstract concepts
and development of operational features is indispensible and thus invigorates the
need to organize data and analyse them to decipher strategic relevancies
(Thompson, 1956). Management and Strategy Essay Assignment.
Structural change is what follows strategy implementation immediately. This
Change demands the arousal of a new system and it can only be made effective
reality under quality leadership. Most strategic changes take place in an organization
right after there has been a change in senior leadership(Andrews,1971). The CEO is
the point of focus if an entire refurbishment of strategy is required throughout the
organization. With the arrival of a new face in leadership, come a new set of
ideologies and perceptively successful decrees that will help shape the first phase of
strategic change. Innovative ideas armed with solid visions are stubbornly required
by an organization if it hopes not to lose its path this transformation. The case where
the organization handed out their plans for the transformation in books to their
employees but failed to garner their confidence owing to the lack of a well grounded
view. The procedures, goals, methods and deadlines account for nothing without
vision (Kotter,1995). Management and Strategy Essay Assignment.
The success of a strategy can be measured once it is well bounded within the walls
of the organization. The new strategy must be like new found common sense within
the firm. When strategy begins to influence "the way we do things around here", it
can be safe to say that the jury is no longer out. Institutionalizing change in strategic
culture begins with convincing people about the positive stimulus in performance
created with the change in attitude (Kiechell,2012). Organizations are known to have
spent hours deciphering what changes have benefited them and what have not.
Beneficial changes are then appreciated while the rest are less emphasized upon. Management and Strategy Essay Assignment.
Again, to take such calls on strategy, the organization has to have effective
leadership. It is pivotal that with a change in management or succession there is not
stone left unturned to ensure the organization remains true to its most valuable
strategies. A single bad decision can unravel a decade of hard work and candidates
who personify transformation have to be employed to lead changes if required
(Kotter,1995). Drucker (1954) manifested that “Management has to manage. And
managing is not just passive, adaptive behaviour” . Managers were expected to be
“attempting to change the economic environment…constantly pushing back the
limitations of economic circumstances on the enterprise’s freedom of action.” He
instigated the humanistic psychology angle to institutions through his writings in The
Practice of Management (1954) . Reiterating the reminder that the corporation was a
social institution with different members, though employed in different levels of
hierarchy , demanded equal protection of respects. To manage equilibrium within the
organization was the primary skill set of management. There emerged a need for
shift toward efficient leadership and innovation. There did however still persist in the
humanitarian angle and the question of what type of behaviour exposure in the
workplace could improve productivity. Unlike strategy, leadership has no basic
guidelines and borders to work on without disruption from third party POV. Management and Strategy Essay Assignment. Strategy with its strong history of paradigms, and able references to great thinkers was
always more fail proof with its more stable paradigms. The researches in leadership
developed slowly and were often blurry in conveyance according to scholars in their
field who couldn’t find mutual consensus on what problems needed the most
addressing. Business schools rephrased their education missions to reading
"helping leaders develop" from "educating general managers". Management and Strategy Essay Assignment.
Grossed empiric cal evidence suggests that strategies implemented for a particular
socio-economic territory cannot ease itself into foreign socio-economic enclaves.
Popular strategy concepts that were well tested in the US failed to make its mark in
Brazil, enumerating effective policies not linked with these concepts. Traditional
Strategy variables etched with social ties have been identified that have proven
prolific in Chinese firms off late. Michael Porter’s Five forces have seen a major
influence in the development of strategy paradigms and researches over the globe.
The most referenced management scholar (Middleton, 2003) exemplified
development of healthy strategies through tools and measurement systems. The five
forces model however does tend to operate without bias primarily in developed
economies. Porter through his later researches has offered an evolved view that
considers institutional forces with the research associated to the still developing
economies being subjected to multiple theoretical repercussions (Porter, 1992,
1998). These tools work without anchors in a supposedly free market, mutually
exclusive to the government aura. Critics have voiced their concern over strategies
that don’t directly influence the government nexuses unlike Porter’s assumption that
the government is ‘indirect, partial and… Observable after a substantial lapse of time’
(Ghemawat,1991).Though the SWOT analysis does reflect an organization’s
potential in an industry there is still room to have further instilled the need to have
economic environment supportive strategies. Management and Strategy Essay Assignment.
The uniqueness and diversity of organizations should be accepted and researches
should work to achieve common ground to bridge the gaps between theories and
practices. Theorists and Practitioners must strive to work in unity to ease client
tensions by developing working theories that abide by moral and political conducts.
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The Innocent Smoothies clip and Hedgehog (Collins,2001) concept movies
discussed in class reiterated the importance of identifying key leaders to take the
organization forward by choosing the right people and the right strategy, at the same
time prioritizing in what the company can offer best and not what they want to do
best. This unique criterion, which translates to the key buying factor that generates
revenue for the company, must be appreciated and developed to provide competitive
edge in this cut throat business world. As long as management continues to be
regarded as a blend of science and art, practiced with guiding decrees, the existing
peace amidst the paradigm battles is but a hiatus waiting to cease. There is much
potential for Industries to evolve using their strategies and at the same time let their
strategies evolve , setting unprecedented benchmarks to research. Management and Strategy Essay Assignment.
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